Botany
- Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Subject : Botany

BIODIVERSITY

1. Taxonomy and Phylogeny - Answer (click here)
2. Two Kingdom System of Classification - Answer (click here)
3. The Five Kingdom System of Classification - Answer (click here)
4. Viruses - Introduction And General characteristics - Answer (click here)
5. Viruses : Size, Shape And Structure of a Virus - Answer (click here)
6. Classification of virus - Answer (click here)
7. Lytic and Lysogenic Life cycle of a phage - Answer (click here)
8. Plant viral disease : Bunchy top of banana, HIV, cancer, SARS Virion - Answer (click here)
9. A new disease called SARS Virion - Answer (click here)
10. Bacteria : Introduction, Occurrence, Size - Answer (click here)
11. Classification of bacteria based on the shape and arrangement - Answer (click here)
12. Flagellation in Bacteria - Answer (click here)
13. Nutrition in Plant Bacteria - Answer (click here)
14. Respiration in Plant Bacteria - Answer (click here)
15. Reproduction of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
16. Harmful activities of Bacteria in Plants, Animal, Human beings - Answer (click here)
17. Beneficial Activities of Bacteria - Answer (click here)
18. Fungi : Salient and Distinguishing Features, Structure, Nutrition, Saprotrophs - Answer (click here)
19. Fungai : Saprotrophs and Parasites - Answer (click here)
20. Fungi Symbiosis - Answer (click here)
21. Classification of Fungi - Answer (click here)
22. Economic importance of Fungi : Useful and Harmful aspects of fungi - Answer (click here)
23. Mucor : Occurrence, Reproduction, Somatic structure - Answer (click here)
24. Algae : Salient Features, Occurrence and Distribution, Thallus organization - Answer (click here)
25. Algae : Cell Structure & Pigmentation - Answer (click here)
26. Algea : Arranagement of Flagella - Answer (click here)
27. Algea Reproduction : 1. Vegetative 2. Asexual 3. Sexual - Answer (click here)
28. Classification of Algea - Answer (click here)
29. Economic Importance of Algae - Food, Agriculture, Industry, space travel, Single cell protein, Sewage Disposal - Answer (click here)
30. Harmful effects of Algae - Answer (click here)
31. Spirogyra : Detail, Occurrence, Structure - Answer (click here)
32. Algea : Reproduction - Answer (click here)
33. Bryophytes : Salient and Distinguishing features of Bryophytes - Answer (click here)
34. Bryophytes : Alternation of Generations - Answer (click here)
35. Classification of Bryophyta - Answer (click here)
36. Riccia And The structure of mature gametophyte - Answer (click here)
37. Reproduction of Riccia - Answer (click here)
38. Riccia - Fertilization, Sporophyte Generation - Answer (click here)
39. Life cycle of Riccia - Answer (click here)
40. Pteridophytes : Salient features and Salient features - Answer (click here)
41. Characteristics of Pteridophytes and Economic importance - Answer (click here)
42. Morphology of sporophyte - Answer (click here)
43. Anatomy of Nephrolepsis - Answer (click here)
44. Reproduction of Nephrolepsis - Answer (click here)
45. Nephrolepsis : Fertilization - Answer (click here)
46. Classification and Characteristic of Spermatophytes(Gymnosperms) - Answer (click here)
47. Salient features and Distinguishing features of Gymnosperms - Answer (click here)
48. Cycas - Morphology of sporophyte - Answer (click here)
49. Anatomy of Cycas - Answer (click here)
50. Cycas - Reproduction - Answer (click here)

CELL BIOLOGY

1. A brief history about the discovery of cells - Answer (click here)
2. Dynamic nature of cell , Difference Between Plant Cell And Animal cell - Answer (click here)
3. Development of Cell Theory And Exception to cell Theory - Answer (click here)
4. prokaryotic cell And Ultra structure of a prokaryotic cell - Answer (click here)
5. Eukaryotes - Answer (click here)
6. Different Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell (Plant Cells) - Answer (click here)
7. Light Microscope and Electron Microscope (TEM - Transmission Electron Microscopy & SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope ) - Answer (click here)
8. Formation of the cell wall - Answer (click here)
9. Structure of the cell wall - Answer (click here)
10. Plasmodesmata, pits and Functions of cell wall - Answer (click here)
11. Ultra structure of the cell membrane - Fluid mosaic Model, Lipids, Proteins - Answer (click here)
12. Functions of plasma membrane - Answer (click here)
13. Cell Membrane Transport - Answer (click here)
14. List of Plant Cell Organelles - Answer (click here)
15. Plant Cell Nucleus And Functions of Plant Cell Nucleus - Answer (click here)
16. Plant Cell Mitochondria - Power house of the cell - Answer (click here)
17. Plant Cell Plastids - chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts - Answer (click here)
18. Plant Cell : Ribosomes - Answer (click here)
19. Plant Cell Division - Cell Cycle 1.Amitosis 2.Mitosis 3. Meiosis - Answer (click here)
20. Cell Division : Mitotic cell cycle : 1.Prophase 2. Metaphase 3.Anaphase 4. Telophase - Answer (click here)
21. Cell Division - Meiosis Cell Cycle : Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase - Answer (click here)

PLANT MORPHOLOGY

1. Morphology of flowering plants or Angiosperms - short notes - Answer (click here)
2. Plant - Root System : Regions of a typical root and General Characteristic features of the root - Answer (click here)
3. Types of Root System And Functions of roots - Answer (click here)
4. Root Modifications for Taproot, adventitious roots - Answer (click here)
5. Characteristic features and Functions of the stem - Answer (click here)
6. Modifications of stem : 1. Aerial modifications 2. Sub aerial modifications 3. Under ground modifications - Answer (click here)
7. Parts of a Leaf : 1. Leaf base 2. Petiole 3. Lamina - Answer (click here)
8. Leaf Venation : Reticulate, Parallel : Pinnately, Palmately - Answer (click here)
9. Leaf Modification - Answer (click here)
10. Inflorescence : Racemose, Cymose, Mixed and Special types - Answer (click here)
11. FLOWER - A Metamorphosed Shoot : Evidences to support that flower is a modified shoot - Answer (click here)
12. Description of a flower - Answer (click here)
13. Types of Placentation : Axile,Marginal, Parietal, Basal, Superficial Placentation - Answer (click here)
14. Androecium And Gynoecium - Answer (click here)
15. Plant Aestivation And Types of Aestivation - Answer (click here)
16. Corolla : Shape of the petals in the corolla and Forms of Corolla - Answer (click here)
17. Calyx : Variations and Duration of calyx - Answer (click here)
18. The receptacle (thalamus) : Variation of the Receptacle, Insertion of floral leaves on the thalamus - Answer (click here)
19. Parts of a flower - Answer (click here)
20. Fruit : Types and Structure of fruit - Answer (click here)
21. Simple fleshy fruits : baccate,drupaceous - Berry, Drupe, Hesperidium, Pepo, Pomo - Answer (click here)
22. Simple Dry Fruits - .1. Dehiscent 2. Schizocarpic 3. Indehiscent - Answer (click here)
23. aggregate and multiple or composite fruits - Answer (click here)
24. Structure and Types of Seed - Answer (click here)
25. Structure of gram seed - Answer (click here)
26. Structure of Maize Grain - Answer (click here)

GENETICS

1. GENETICS : Concept of Heredity and Variation - Answer (click here)
2. Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance - Answer (click here)
3. Intermediate Inheritance (Incomplete Dominance) - Answer (click here)
4. Epistasis - Gene Interaction - Answer (click here)
5. Inheritance Laws of Mendel - Answer (click here)
6. Biography of Mendel And Mendel's Experiments on Mendel's Laws of Inheritance - Answer (click here)

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

1. Cell as a Physiological Unit - Answer (click here)
2. Properties of Protoplasm : The Physical and Chemical Nature - Answer (click here)
3. Cell - Water Relations - Answer (click here)
4. Cells : Absorption and Movement - Imbibition, Diffusion - Answer (click here)
5. Demonstration of Osmosis - Potato Osmoscope - Answer (click here)
6. Plasmolysis and Significance of Plasmolysis - Answer (click here)
7. Plant Cells : Permeability and Water Potential - Answer (click here)
8. Water Transport in Plant - Answer (click here)
9. Transpiration Pull Theory in plant water transport - Answer (click here)
10. Factors Affecting Rate of Transpiration in Plant - Answer (click here)
11. Structure of Stoma and Mechanism of Stomatal Opening and Closing - Answer (click here)
12. Factors Affecting Stomatal Movement - Answer (click here)
13. Functions of Minerals Nutrition - Answer (click here)
14. Hydroponics : Advantages and Disavantagges of Hydroponics - Answer (click here)
15. Essential Major Elements and Trace Elements for Plant - Answer (click here)
16. Plant Physiological Role and Deficiency Symptoms of Mineral Elements - Answer (click here)
17. Theories of Translocation for Plant : Passive absorption and Active Absorption - Answer (click here)
18. Plant Physiology : Translocation of Solutes - Answer (click here)
19. Plant Physiology : Nitrogen Metabolism - Answer (click here)
20. Plant Movements : Movements of locomotion and curvature - Answer (click here)
21. Geotropism - Answer (click here)
22. Phototropism And Turgor Growth Movements - Answer (click here)

REPRODUCTION BIOLOGY

1. Reproduction in Angiosperms : Vegetative Propagation - Answer (click here)
2. Natural Methods of Vegetative Propagation : Root, Stem, Leaves - Answer (click here)
3. Advantages of Vegetative propagation - Answer (click here)
4. Artificial Method of Vegetative Propagation : Cuttings, Grafting - Answer (click here)
5. Reproduction in Angiosperm : Micropropagation - Answer (click here)
6. Self Pollination - Sexual Reproduction : 1. autogamy 2. geitonogamy - Answer (click here)
7. Cross Pollination (Xenogamy, Allogamy) - Sexual Reproduction - Answer (click here)
8. Development of male and female gametophyte - Answer (click here)
9. Development of female gametophyte : Megasporophyll, Megasporangium or ovule, Megasporogenesis - Answer (click here)
10. Types of Plant Ovule - Answer (click here)
11. Plant Reproduction : Double fertilization - Answer (click here)
12. Development of dicot embryo - Answer (click here)
13. Parthenogenesis and parthenocarpy - Answer (click here)
14. Germination of Seed : Parts of Seed - Answer (click here)
15. Process of seed germination - Answer (click here)
16. Types of seed germination : Epigeal, Hypogeal germination, Vivipary - Answer (click here)
17. Factors necessary for seed gamination - Answer (click here)
18. Abscission and Importance of Abscission - Answer (click here)
19. senescence : Types, Physiology , Importance of senescence - Answer (click here)

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY

1. Organisms and their Environment - Answer (click here)
2. Organisms : Environmental Climatic Factors - Answer (click here)
3. Organisms : Environment : Edaphic Factors - Answer (click here)
4. Organisms : Environmental factors - Climatic, Edaphic, Biotic - Answer (click here)
5. Relationships among Organisms : Positive and Negative Interactions - Answer (click here)
6. Hydrophytes And Classification of Hydrophytes - Answer (click here)
7. Morphological and Anatomical adaptations of Hydrophytes - Answer (click here)
8. Xerophytes and Classification of Xerophytes - Answer (click here)
9. Morphological, Anatomical and Physiological Adaptations of Xerophytes - Answer (click here)
10. Mesophytes - Answer (click here)
11. natural resources and Types of natural resources - Answer (click here)
12. Sources of Energy resources - Answer (click here)
13. Conservation of Energy - Answer (click here)
14. Forest Resources - Answer (click here)
15. Social Forestry and Conservation of Forests - Answer (click here)
16. Conservation of Water and Types of Harvesting Rainwater - Answer (click here)

TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

1. TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS : Types of classification - Answer (click here)
2. Biosystematics nomenclature - Answer (click here)
3. Binomial nomenclature - Answer (click here)
4. Herbaria and uses, Importance of Herbaria - Answer (click here)
5. Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants : Dicotyledonae, Gymnospermae and Monocotyledonae - Answer (click here)
6. Merits and Demerits of Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants - Answer (click here)
7. DICOT FAMILIES : MALVACEAE - the cotton family - Answer (click here)
8. Botanical description of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis - Answer (click here)
9. FABACEAE - the bean family - Answer (click here)
10. Botanical description and Economical of Clitoria ternatea - Answer (click here)
11. RUBIACEAE - the coffee family - Answer (click here)
12. Botanical description and Economic Importance of Ixora coccinea - Answer (click here)
13. ASTERACEAE - the sunflower family - Answer (click here)
14. Botanical description and Economic importance of Tridax procumbens - Answer (click here)
15. SOLANACEAE - the potato family - Answer (click here)
16. Botanical description and Economic importance of Datura metal - Answer (click here)
17. EUPHORBIACEAE - the castor family - Answer (click here)
18. Botanical description and Economic importance of Ricinus communis - Answer (click here)
19. MUSACEAE - the banana family Systematic position - Answer (click here)
20. Botanical description and Economical importance of Musa paradisiaca - Answer (click here)
21. ARECACEAE - the palm family - Answer (click here)
22. Botanical description and Economic importance of Cocos nucifera - Answer (click here)

PLANT ANATOMY

1. Classification and Characteristics of meristematic cells - Answer (click here)
2. Classification of permanent tissue : Simple and Complex tissue - Answer (click here)
3. Permanent Simple tissue Types : parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma - Answer (click here)
4. Permanent Complex tissue and Types : Xylem, Phloem - Answer (click here)
5. Phloem : Sieve elements, Companion cells, Phloem parenchyma, Phloem fibres - Answer (click here)
6. Epidermal tissue system and its functions - Answer (click here)
7. Vascular tissue system - Answer (click here)
8. Ground or fundamental tissue system - Answer (click here)
9. Primary structure of monocotyledonous root - Maize root - Answer (click here)
10. Primary structure of dicotyledonous root - Bean root - Answer (click here)
11. Primary structure of monocot stem - Maize stem - Answer (click here)
12. Primary structure of dicotyledonous stem - Sunflower stem - Answer (click here)
13. Anatomy of a dicot leaf - Sunflower leaf - Answer (click here)
14. Anatomy of a monocot leaf - Grass leaf - Answer (click here)
15. Secondary growth in dicot stem - Answer (click here)

CELL BIOLOGY AND GENETICS

1. Structure of chromosome - Answer (click here)
2. Types of chromosomes - Answer (click here)
3. Special types of chromosomes - Answer (click here)
4. Gene and genome - Answer (click here)
5. Linkage and crossing over - Answer (click here)
6. Significance of crossing over and Uses of gene mapping - Answer (click here)
7. Recombination of chromosome - Answer (click here)
8. Gene mutation : Significance, Classification, Mutagenic agents - Answer (click here)
9. Numerical and Structural chromosomal aberrations - Answer (click here)
10. Numerical and Structural chromosomal aberrations - Answer (click here)
11. Hereditary role of DNA - Bacterial transformation - Answer (click here)
12. Structure of DNA - Answer (click here)
13. Function and Replication of DNA - Answer (click here)
14. Structure of RNA and its types - Answer (click here)
15. Characteristics of genetic code and Central dogma of molecular biology - Answer (click here)

BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. Recombinant DNA technology - Answer (click here)
2. Gene transfer in plants - Answer (click here)
3. How DNA is cut? - Answer (click here)
4. Transgenic plants : foreign gene, Transgenic (modified) plants - Answer (click here)
5. Practical application of genetic transformation - Answer (click here)
6. Use of genetically engineered bacterial strain - Answer (click here)
7. Concept of Plant tissue culture - Answer (click here)
8. Applications of plant tissue culture - Answer (click here)
9. Basic techniques of plant tissue culture - Answer (click here)
10. Protoplast fusion : Isolation of protoplast - Mechanical and Enzymatic method - Answer (click here)
11. Single cell protein (SCP) - Answer (click here)

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

1. Enzymes : Classification, Properties of Enzymes - Answer (click here)
2. Theories explaining the mechanism of enzyme action - Answer (click here)
3. Significance of photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
4. Site of photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
5. Photochemical and biosynthetic phases, Mechanism of photosynthesis - Answer (click here)
6. EXPERIMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS : 1.Ganong's light screen 2.Test tube and funnel experiment - Answer (click here)
7. Plant Mode of nutrition - Answer (click here)
8. Chemosynthesis - Chemosynthetic autotrophs and heterotrophs - Answer (click here)
9. Plant Respiration and structure of ATP - Answer (click here)
10. Plant Respiration : Glycolysis - Answer (click here)
11. Plant Respiration : Krebs cycle and Significance of Krebs cycle - Answer (click here)
12. Plant Respiration : Electron transport chain - Answer (click here)
13. Plant Respiration : Pentose phosphate pathway - Answer (click here)
14. Kuhne's fermentation tube experiment - Answer (click here)
15. Plant growth and Measurement of plant growth - Answer (click here)
16. auxins and Physiological effects of auxin - Answer (click here)
17. Gibberellins and Physiological effects of gibberellin - Answer (click here)
18. Physiological effects of cytokinin, ethylene, abscisic acid - Answer (click here)
19. Photoperiodism and vernalization - Answer (click here)

BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE

1. BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE : Food production - Answer (click here)
2. Plant breeding : Aims, Major Aspects of plant breeding - Answer (click here)
3. Plant Breeding : Selection - Answer (click here)
4. Plant Breeding : Hybridization, Mutation breeding - Answer (click here)
5. Plant breeding : Genetic engineering - Answer (click here)
6. Role of biofertilizers and Benefits from biofertilizers - Answer (click here)
7. Plant Disease in Rice - Oryza sativa - Answer (click here)
8. Plant Tikka disease in Groundnut or peanut - Arachis hypogea - Answer (click here)
9. Citrus canker and Tungro disease of rice - Answer (click here)
10. Biopesticides and Biocontrol of insect pests - Answer (click here)
11. Genetically modified food : Edible, Edible, Edible antibodies - Answer (click here)
12. Bio-war - Answer (click here)
13. Bio-piracy - Answer (click here)
14. Bio-patent - Answer (click here)
15. Sustained agriculture - Answer (click here)
16. Medicinal plants including microbes - Answer (click here)
17. Commonly available medicinal plants and microbes - Answer (click here)
18. Economic importance Plants : Food, Rice, Oil, Fibre, Timber yielding plant - Answer (click here)