Medical Physiology
- Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Subject : Medical Physiology

Introduction to Physiology Functional Organization of the Human Body and Control of the Internal Environment

1. Functional Organization of the Human Body and Control of the “Internal Environment” - Answer (click here)
2. Cells as the Living Units of the Body - Answer (click here)
3. Extracellular Fluid-The “Internal Environment” - Answer (click here)
4. “Homeostatic” Mechanisms of the Major Functional Systems - Answer (click here)
5. Control Systems of the Body - Answer (click here)
6. Examples of Control Mechanisms of the Body - Answer (click here)
7. Characteristics of Control Systems of the Body - Answer (click here)

Introduction to Physiology The Cell and Its Functions

1. Organization of the Cell - Answer (click here)
2. Physical Structure of the Cell - Answer (click here)
3. Membranous Structures of the Cell - Answer (click here)
4. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles - Physical Structure of the Cell - Answer (click here)
5. Nucleus and Nuclear Membrane - Physical Structure of the Cell - Answer (click here)
6. Nucleoli and Formation of Ribosomes - Answer (click here)
7. Comparison of the Animal Cell with Precellular Forms of Life - Answer (click here)
8. Functional Systems of the Cell - Answer (click here)
9. Ingestion by the Cell - Endocytosis - Functional Systems of the Cell - Answer (click here)
10. Digestion of Pinocytotic and Phagocytic Foreign Substances Inside the Cell - Function of the Lysosomes - Answer (click here)
11. Synthesis and Formation of Cellular Structures by Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus - Answer (click here)
12. Extraction of Energy from Nutrients - Function of the Mitochondria - Answer (click here)
13. Locomotion of Cells - Answer (click here)
14. Ameboid Movement - Answer (click here)
15. Cilia and Ciliary Movements - Answer (click here)

Introduction to Physiology Genetic Control of Protein Synthesis Cell Function and Cell Reproduction

1. Genes in the Cell Nucleus - Answer (click here)
2. DNA Code in the Cell Nucleus Is Transferred to an RNA Code in the Cell Cytoplasm - The Process of Transcription - Answer (click here)
3. Synthesis of Other Substances in the Cell - Answer (click here)
4. Control of Gene Function and Biochemical Activity in Cells - Answer (click here)
5. The DNA-Genetic System Also Controls Cell Reproduction - Answer (click here)
6. Cell Differentiation - Answer (click here)
7. Apoptosis-Programmed Cell Death - Answer (click here)
8. Cancer - Answer (click here)

Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Transport of Substances Through the Cell Membrane

1. The Lipid Barrier of the Cell Membrane, and Cell Membrane Transport Proteins - Answer (click here)
2. Diffusion - Answer (click here)
3. Diffusion Through the Cell Membrane - Answer (click here)
4. Diffusion Through Protein Channels, and “Gating” of These Channels - Answer (click here)
5. Facilitated Diffusion - Answer (click here)
6. Factors That Affect Net Rate of Diffusion - Answer (click here)
7. Osmosis Across Selectively Permeable Membranes - “Net Diffusion” of Water - Answer (click here)
8. “Active Transport” of Substances Through Membranes - Answer (click here)
9. Primary Active Transport - Answer (click here)
10. Secondary Active Transport - Co-Transport and Counter-Transport - Answer (click here)
11. Active Transport Through Cellular Sheets - Answer (click here)

Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials

1. Basic Physics of Membrane Potentials - Answer (click here)
2. Measuring the Membrane Potential - Answer (click here)
3. Resting Membrane Potential of Nerves - Answer (click here)
4. Nerve Action Potential - Answer (click here)
5. Roles of Other Ions During the Action Potential - Answer (click here)
6. Propagation of the Action Potential - Answer (click here)
7. Re-establishing Sodium and Potassium Ionic Gradients After Action Potentials Are Completed - Answer (click here)
8. Plateau in Some Action Potentials - Answer (click here)
9. Rhythmicity of Some Excitable Tissues-Repetitive Discharge - Answer (click here)
10. Special Characteristics of Signal Transmission in Nerve Trunks - Answer (click here)
11. Excitation-The Process of Eliciting the Action Potential - Answer (click here)
12. Recording Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials - Answer (click here)

Membrane Physiology Nerve and Muscle Contraction of Skeletal Muscle

1. Physiologic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle - Answer (click here)
2. General Mechanism of Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
3. Molecular Mechanism of Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
4. Molecular Characteristics of the Contractile Filaments - Answer (click here)
5. Effect of Amount of Actin and Myosin Filament Overlap on Tension Developed by the Contracting Muscle - Answer (click here)
6. Relation of Velocity of Contraction to Load - Answer (click here)
7. Energetics of Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
8. Characteristics of Whole Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
9. Mechanics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
10. Remodeling of Muscle to Match Function - Answer (click here)
11. Rigor Mortis - Answer (click here)

Excitation of Skeletal Muscle Neuromuscular Transmission and Excitation Contraction Coupling

1. Transmission of Impulses from Nerve Endings to Skeletal Muscle Fibers: The Neuromuscular Junction - Answer (click here)
2. Secretion of Acetylcholine by the Nerve Terminals - Answer (click here)
3. Molecular Biology of Acetylcholine Formation and Release - Answer (click here)
4. Drugs That Enhance or Block Transmission at the Neuromuscular Junction - Answer (click here)
5. Myasthenia Gravis - Answer (click here)
6. Muscle Action Potential - Answer (click here)
7. Excitation-Contraction Coupling - Answer (click here)

Contraction and Excitation of Smooth Muscle

1. Contraction of Smooth Muscle - Answer (click here)
2. Types of Smooth Muscle - Answer (click here)
3. Contractile Mechanism in Smooth Muscle - Answer (click here)
4. Regulation of Contraction of Smooth Muscle by Calcium Ions - Answer (click here)
5. Nervous and Hormonal Control of Smooth Muscle Contraction - Answer (click here)
6. Neuromuscular Junctions of Smooth Muscle - Answer (click here)
7. Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials in Smooth Muscle - Answer (click here)
8. Effect of Local Tissue Factors and Hormones to Cause Smooth Muscle Contraction Without Action Potentials - Answer (click here)
9. Source of Calcium Ions That Cause Contraction (1) Through the Cell Membrane and (2) from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - Answer (click here)

Heart Muscle The Heart as a Pump and Function of the Heart Valves

1. Physiology of Cardiac Muscle - Answer (click here)
2. Physiologic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle - Answer (click here)
3. Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle - Answer (click here)
4. The Cardiac Cycle - Answer (click here)
5. Diastole and Systole - Answer (click here)
6. Relationship of the Electrocardiogram to the Cardiac Cycle - Answer (click here)
7. Function of the Atria as Primer Pumps - Answer (click here)
8. Function of the Ventricles as Pumps - Answer (click here)
9. Function of the Valves - Answer (click here)
10. Aortic Pressure Curve - Answer (click here)
11. Relationship of the Heart Sounds to Heart Pumping - Answer (click here)
12. Work Output of the Heart: Graphical Analysis of Ventricular Pumping - Answer (click here)
13. Chemical Energy Required for Cardiac Contraction: Oxygen Utilization by the Heart - Answer (click here)
14. Regulation of Heart Pumping - Answer (click here)

Rhythmical Excitation of the Heart

1. Specialized Excitatory and Conductive System of the Heart - Answer (click here)
2. Sinus (Sinoatrial) Node - Answer (click here)
3. Internodal Pathways and Transmission of the Cardiac Impulse Through the Atria - Answer (click here)
4. Atrioventricular Node, and Delay of Impulse Conduction from the Atria to the Ventricles - Answer (click here)
5. Rapid Transmission in the Ventricular Purkinje System - Answer (click here)
6. Transmission of the Cardiac Impulse in the Ventricular Muscle - Answer (click here)
7. Control of Excitation and Conduction in the Heart - Answer (click here)
8. The Sinus Node as the Pacemaker of the Heart - Answer (click here)
9. Role of the Purkinje System in Causing Synchronous Contraction of the Ventricular Muscle - Answer (click here)
10. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerves - Answer (click here)

The Normal Electrocardiogram

1. Characteristics of the Normal Electrocardiogram - Answer (click here)
2. Methods for Recording Electrocardiograms - Answer (click here)
3. Flow of Current Around the Heart During the Cardiac Cycle - Answer (click here)
4. Electrocardiographic Leads: Three Bipolar Limb Leads, Chest Leads (Precordial Leads), Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads - Answer (click here)

Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac Muscle and Coronary Blood Flow Abnormalities Vectorial Analysis

1. Principles of Vectorial Analysis of Electrocardiograms - Answer (click here)
2. Vectorial Analysis of the Normal Electrocardiogram - Answer (click here)
3. Mean Electrical Axis of the Ventricular QRS - And Its Significance - Answer (click here)
4. Conditions That Cause Abnormal Voltages of the QRS Complex - Answer (click here)
5. Prolonged and Bizarre Patterns of the QRS Complex - Electrocardiographic - Answer (click here)
6. Current of Injury - Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac - Answer (click here)
7. Abnormalities in the T Wave - Electrocardiographic Interpretation of Cardiac Muscle and Coronary Blood Flow Abnormalities - Answer (click here)

Cardiac Arrhythmias and Their Electrocardiographic Interpretation

1. Cardiac Arrhythmias and Their Electrocardiographic Interpretation - Answer (click here)
2. Abnormal Sinus Rhythms - Answer (click here)
3. Tachycardia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms - Answer (click here)
4. Bradycardia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms - Answer (click here)
5. Sinus Arrhythmia - Abnormal Sinus Rhythms - Answer (click here)
6. Abnormal Rhythms That Result from Block of Heart Signals Within the Intracardiac Conduction Pathways - Answer (click here)
7. Premature Contractions - Answer (click here)
8. Paroxysmal Tachycardia - Answer (click here)
9. Atrial Paroxysmal Tachycardia - Answer (click here)
10. Ventricular Paroxysmal Tachycardia - Answer (click here)
11. Ventricular Fibrillation - Answer (click here)
12. Atrial Fibrillation - Answer (click here)
13. Atrial Flutter - Answer (click here)
14. Cardiac Arrest - Answer (click here)

Overview of the Circulation Medical Physics of Pressure Flow and Resistance

1. Physical Characteristics of the Circulation - Answer (click here)
2. Basic Theory of Circulatory Function - Answer (click here)
3. Interrelationships Among Pressure, Flow, and Resistance - Answer (click here)
4. Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
5. Blood Pressure - Answer (click here)
6. Resistance to Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
7. Effects of Pressure on Vascular Resistance and Tissue Blood Flow - Answer (click here)

Vascular Distensibility and Functions of the Arterial and Venous Systems

1. Vascular Distensibility - Answer (click here)
2. Arterial Pressure Pulsations - Answer (click here)
3. Veins and Their Functions - Answer (click here)
4. Venous Pressures-Right Atrial Pressure (Central Venous Pressure) and Peripheral Venous Pressures - Answer (click here)
5. Blood Reservoir Function of the Veins - Answer (click here)

The Microcirculation and the Lymphatic System Capillary Fluid Exchange Interstitial Fluid and Lymph Flow

1. Structure of the Microcirculation and Capillary System - Answer (click here)
2. Flow of Blood in the Capillaries-Vasomotion - Answer (click here)
3. Exchange of Water, Nutrients, and Other Substances Between the Blood and Interstitial Fluid - Answer (click here)
4. The Interstitium and Interstitial Fluid - Answer (click here)
5. Fluid Filtration Across Capillaries Is Determined by Hydrostatic and Colloid Osmotic Pressures, and Capillary Filtration Coefficient - Answer (click here)
6. Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure - Answer (click here)
7. Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure - Answer (click here)
8. Plasma Colloid Osmotic Pressure - Answer (click here)
9. Interstitial Fluid Colloid Osmotic Pressure - Answer (click here)
10. Exchange of Fluid Volume Through the Capillary Membrane - Answer (click here)
11. Starling Equilibrium for Capillary Exchange - Answer (click here)
12. Lymphatic System - Answer (click here)
13. Lymph Channels of the Body - Answer (click here)
14. Formation of Lymph - Answer (click here)
15. Rate of Lymph Flow - Answer (click here)

Local and Humoral Control of Blood Flow by the Tissues

1. Local Control of Blood Flow in Response to Tissue Needs - Answer (click here)
2. Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control - Answer (click here)
3. Acute Control of Local Blood Flow - Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control - Answer (click here)
4. Long-Term Blood Flow Regulation - Mechanisms of Blood Flow Control - Answer (click here)
5. Development of Collateral Circulation-A Phenomenon of Long- Term Local Blood Flow Regulation - Answer (click here)
6. Humoral Control of the Circulation - Answer (click here)
7. Vascular Control by Ions and Other Chemical Factors - Answer (click here)

Nervous Regulation of the Circulation and Rapid Control of Arterial Pressure

1. Nervous Regulation of the Circulation - Answer (click here)
2. Role of the Nervous System in Rapid Control of Arterial Pressure - Answer (click here)
3. Increase in Arterial Pressure During Muscle Exercise and Other Types of Stress - Answer (click here)
4. Reflex Mechanisms for Maintaining Normal Arterial Pressure - Answer (click here)
5. Central Nervous System Ischemic Response - Answer (click here)
6. Special Features of Nervous Control of Arterial Pressure - Answer (click here)

Dominant Role of the Kidney in Long Term Regulation of Arterial Pressure and in Hypertension The Integrated System for Pressure Control

1. Renal-Body Fluid System for Arterial Pressure Control - Answer (click here)
2. Quantitation of Pressure Diuresis as a Basis for Arterial Pressure Control - Answer (click here)
3. Chronic Hypertension (High Blood Pressure) Is Caused by Impaired Renal Fluid Excretion - Answer (click here)
4. The Renin-Angiotensin System: Its Role in Pressure Control and in Hypertension - Answer (click here)
5. Components of the Renin-Angiotensin System - Answer (click here)
6. Types of Hypertension in Which Angiotensin Is Involved - Answer (click here)
7. Other Types of Hypertension Caused by Combinations of Volume Loading and Vasoconstriction - Answer (click here)
8. “Primary (Essential) Hypertension” - Answer (click here)
9. Summary of the Integrated, Multifaceted System for Arterial Pressure Regulation - Answer (click here)

Cardiac Output Venous Return and Their Regulation

1. Normal Values for Cardiac Output at Rest and During Activity - Answer (click here)
2. Control of Cardiac Output by Venous Return-Role of the Frank-Starling Mechanism of the Heart - Answer (click here)
3. The Heart Has Limits for the Cardiac Output That It Can Achieve - Answer (click here)
4. What Is the Role of the Nervous System in Controlling Cardiac Output? - Answer (click here)
5. Pathologically High and Pathologically Low Cardiac Outputs - Answer (click here)
6. High Cardiac Output Caused by Reduced Total Peripheral Resistance - Answer (click here)
7. Low Cardiac Output - Answer (click here)
8. A More Quantitative Analysis of Cardiac Output Regulation - Answer (click here)
9. Cardiac Output Curves Used in the Quantitative Analysis - Answer (click here)
10. Venous Return Curves - Answer (click here)
11. Analysis of Cardiac Output and Right Atrial Pressure, Using Simultaneous Cardiac Output and Venous Return Curves - Answer (click here)
12. Methods for Measuring Cardiac Output - Answer (click here)

Muscle Blood Flow and Cardiac Output During Exercise the Coronary Circulation and schemic Heart Disease

1. Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscle and Blood Flow Regulation During Exercise - Answer (click here)
2. Rate of Blood Flow Through the Muscles - Answer (click here)
3. Control of Blood Flow Through the Skeletal Muscles - Answer (click here)
4. Total Body Circulatory Readjustments During Exercise - Answer (click here)
5. Coronary Circulation - Answer (click here)
6. Physiologic Anatomy of the Coronary Blood Supply - Answer (click here)
7. Normal Coronary Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
8. Control of Coronary Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
9. Special Features of Cardiac Muscle Metabolism - Answer (click here)
10. Ischemic Heart Disease - Answer (click here)
11. Causes of Death After Acute Coronary Occlusion - Answer (click here)
12. Stages of Recovery from Acute Myocardial Infarction - Answer (click here)
13. Function of the Heart After Recovery from Myocardial Infarction - Answer (click here)
14. Pain in Coronary Heart Disease - Answer (click here)
15. Surgical Treatment of Coronary Disease - Answer (click here)

Cardiac Failure

1. Acute Effects of Moderate Cardiac Failure - Answer (click here)
2. Chronic Stage of Failure-Fluid Retention Helps to Compensate Cardiac Output - Answer (click here)
3. Summary of the Changes That Occur After Acute Cardiac Failure- “Compensated Heart Failure” - Answer (click here)
4. Dynamics of Severe Cardiac Failure- Decompensated Heart Failure - Answer (click here)
5. Unilateral Left Heart Failure - Answer (click here)
6. Low-Output Cardiac Failure- Cardiogenic Shock - Answer (click here)
7. Edema in Patients with Cardiac Failure - Answer (click here)
8. Cardiac Reserve - Answer (click here)
9. Quantitative Graphical Method for Analysis of Cardiac Failure - Answer (click here)

Heart Valves and Heart Sounds Dynamics of Valvular and Congenital Heart Defects

1. Normal Heart Sounds - Answer (click here)
2. Valvular Lesions - Heart Sounds - Answer (click here)
3. Abnormal Circulatory Dynamics in Valvular Heart Disease - Answer (click here)
4. Abnormal Circulatory Dynamics in Congenital Heart Defects - Answer (click here)
5. Use of Extracorporeal Circulation During Cardiac Surgery - Answer (click here)
6. Hypertrophy of the Heart in Valvular and Congenital Heart Disease - Answer (click here)

Circulatory Shock and Physiology of Its Treatment

1. Physiologic Causes of Shock - Answer (click here)
2. Shock Caused by Hypovolemia-Hemorrhagic Shock - Answer (click here)
3. Relationship of Bleeding Volume to Cardiac Output and Arterial Pressure - Answer (click here)
4. Progressive and Nonprogressive Hemorrhagic Shock - Answer (click here)
5. Irreversible Shock - Answer (click here)
6. Hypovolemic Shock Caused by Plasma Loss - Answer (click here)
7. Hypovolemic Shock Caused by Trauma - Answer (click here)
8. Neurogenic Shock-Increased Vascular Capacity - Answer (click here)
9. Anaphylactic Shock and Histamine Shock - Answer (click here)
10. Septic Shock - Answer (click here)
11. Physiology of Treatment in Shock - Answer (click here)
12. Circulatory Arrest - Answer (click here)
13. Effect of Circulatory Arrest on the Brain - Answer (click here)

The Body Fluid Compartments Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids Interstitial Fluid and Edema

1. Fluid Intake and Output Are Balanced During Steady-State Conditions - Answer (click here)
2. Daily Intake of Water - Answer (click here)
3. Daily Loss of Body Water - Answer (click here)
4. Body Fluid Compartments - Answer (click here)
5. Blood Volume - Answer (click here)
6. Constituents of Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids - Answer (click here)
7. Measurement of Fluid Volumes in the Different Body Fluid Compartments-The Indicator-Dilution Principle - Answer (click here)
8. Determination of Volumes of Specific Body Fluid Compartments - Answer (click here)
9. Regulation of Fluid Exchange and Osmotic Equilibrium Between Intracellular and Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
10. Basic Principles of Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure - Answer (click here)
11. Osmotic Equilibrium Is Maintained Between Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids - Answer (click here)
12. Volume and Osmolality of Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids in Abnormal States - Answer (click here)
13. Effect of Adding Saline Solution to the Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
14. Glucose and Other Solutions Administered for Nutritive Purposes - Answer (click here)
15. Clinical Abnormalities of Fluid Volume Regulation: Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia - Answer (click here)
16. Edema: Excess Fluid in the Tissues - Answer (click here)
17. Intracellular Edema - Answer (click here)
18. Extracellular Edema - Answer (click here)
19. Summary of Causes of Extracellular Edema - Answer (click here)
20. Safety Factors That Normally Prevent Edema - Answer (click here)
21. Fluids in the “Potential Spaces” of the Body - Answer (click here)

Urine Formation by the Kidneys I Glomerular Filtration Renal Blood Flow and Their Control

1. Multiple Functions of the Kidneys in Homeostasis - Answer (click here)
2. Physiologic Anatomy of the Kidneys - Answer (click here)
3. General Organization of the Kidneys and Urinary Tract - Answer (click here)
4. Renal Blood Supply - Answer (click here)
5. The Nephron Is the Functional Unit of the Kidney - Answer (click here)
6. Micturition - Answer (click here)
7. Physiologic Anatomy and Nervous Connections of the Bladder - Answer (click here)
8. Transport of Urine from the Kidney Through the Ureters and into the Bladder - Answer (click here)
9. Filling of the Bladder and Bladder Wall Tone; the Cystometrogram - Answer (click here)
10. Micturition Reflex - Answer (click here)
11. Abnormalities of Micturition - Answer (click here)
12. Urine Formation Results from Glomerular Filtration, Tubular Reabsorption, and Tubular Secretion - Answer (click here)
13. Glomerular Filtration-The First Step in Urine Formation - Answer (click here)
14. Determinants of the GFR - Answer (click here)
15. Renal Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
16. Physiologic Control of Glomerular Filtration and Renal Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
17. Autoregulation of GFR and Renal Blood Flow - Answer (click here)

Urine Formation by the Kidneys II Tubular Processing of the Glomerular Filtrate

1. Reabsorption and Secretion by the Renal Tubules - Answer (click here)
2. Tubular Reabsorption Includes Passive and Active Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
3. Active Transport - Tubular Reabsorption Includes Passive and Active Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
4. Passive Water Reabsorption by Osmosis Is Coupled Mainly to Sodium Reabsorption - Answer (click here)
5. Reabsorption of Chloride, Urea, and Other Solutes by Passive Diffusion - Answer (click here)
6. Reabsorption and Secretion Along Different Parts of the Nephron - Answer (click here)
7. Proximal Tubular Reabsorption - Answer (click here)
8. Solute and Water Transport in the Loop of Henle - Answer (click here)
9. Distal Tubule - Answer (click here)
10. Late Distal Tubule and Cortical Collecting Tubule - Answer (click here)
11. Medullary Collecting Duct - Answer (click here)
12. Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption - Answer (click here)
13. Use of Clearance Methods to Quantify Kidney Function - Answer (click here)

Regulation of Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration

1. Kidneys Excrete Excess Water by Forming a Dilute Urine - Answer (click here)
2. Kidneys Conserve Water by Excreting a Concentrated Urine - Answer (click here)
3. Obligatory Urine Volume - Answer (click here)
4. Requirements for Excreting a Concentrated Urine-High ADH Levels and Hyperosmotic Renal Medulla - Answer (click here)
5. Countercurrent Mechanism Produces a Hyperosmotic Renal Medullary Interstitium - Answer (click here)
6. Role of Distal Tubule and Collecting Ducts in Excreting a Concentrated Urine - Answer (click here)
7. Urea Contributes to Hyperosmotic Renal Medullary Interstitium and to a Concentrated Urine - Answer (click here)
8. Countercurrent Exchange in the Vasa Recta Preserves Hyperosmolarity of the Renal Medulla - Answer (click here)
9. Quantifying Renal Urine Concentration and Dilution: “Free Water” and Osmolar Clearances - Answer (click here)
10. Disorders of Urinary Concentrating Ability - Answer (click here)
11. Control of Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration - Answer (click here)
12. Osmoreceptor-ADH Feedback System - Answer (click here)
13. Role of Thirst in Controlling Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity and Sodium Concentration - Answer (click here)
14. Salt-Appetite Mechanism for Controlling Extracellular Fluid Sodium Concentration and Volume - Answer (click here)

Renal Regulation of Potassium Calcium Phosphate and Magnesium Integration of Renal Mechanisms for Control of Blood Volume and Extracellular Fluid Volume

1. Regulation of Potassium Excretion and Potassium Concentration in Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
2. Regulation of Internal Potassium Distribution - Answer (click here)
3. Overview of Renal Potassium Excretion - Answer (click here)
4. Potassium Secretion by Principal Cells of Late Distal and Cortical Collecting Tubules - Answer (click here)
5. Summary of Factors That Regulate Potassium Secretion - Answer (click here)
6. Control of Renal Calcium Excretion and Extracellular Calcium Ion Concentration - Answer (click here)
7. Control of Renal Magnesium Excretion and Extracellular Magnesium Ion Concentration - Answer (click here)
8. Integration of Renal Mechanisms for Control of Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
9. Importance of Pressure Natriuresis and Pressure Diuresis in Maintaining Body Sodium and Fluid Balance - Answer (click here)
10. Distribution of Extracellular Fluid Between the Interstitial Spaces and Vascular System - Answer (click here)
11. Nervous and Hormonal Factors Increase the Effectiveness of Renal-Body Fluid Feedback Control - Answer (click here)
12. Role of Angiotensin II In Controlling Renal Excretion - Answer (click here)
13. Role of Aldosterone in Controlling Renal Excretion - Answer (click here)
14. Role of ADH in Controlling Renal Water Excretion - Answer (click here)
15. Role of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide in Controlling Renal Excretion - Answer (click here)
16. Integrated Responses to Changes in Sodium Intake - Answer (click here)
17. Conditions That Cause Large Increases in Blood Volume and Extracellular Fluid Volume - Answer (click here)
18. Conditions That Cause Large Increases in Extracellular Fluid Volume but with Normal Blood Volume - Answer (click here)

Regulation of Acid Base Balance

1. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance - Answer (click here)
2. Hydrogen Ion Concentration Is Precisely Regulated - Answer (click here)
3. Acids and Bases-Their Definitions and Meanings - Answer (click here)
4. Defenses Against Changes in Hydrogen Ion Concentration: Buffers, Lungs, and Kidneys - Answer (click here)
5. Buffering of Hydrogen Ions in the Body Fluids - Answer (click here)
6. Bicarbonate Buffer System - Answer (click here)
7. Quantitative Dynamics of the Bicarbonate Buffer System - Answer (click here)
8. Phosphate Buffer System - Answer (click here)
9. Proteins: Important Intracellular Buffers - Answer (click here)
10. Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance - Answer (click here)
11. Renal Control of Acid-Base Balance - Answer (click here)
12. Secretion of Hydrogen Ions and Reabsorption of Bicarbonate Ions by the Renal Tubules - Answer (click here)
13. Combination of Excess Hydrogen Ions with Phosphate and Ammonia Buffers in the Tubule-A Mechanism for Generating “New” Bicarbonate Ions - Answer (click here)
14. Quantifying Renal Acid-Base Excretion - Answer (click here)
15. Regulation of Renal Tubular Hydrogen Ion Secretion - Answer (click here)
16. Acidosis Decreases the Ratio of HCO3-/H+ in Renal Tubular Fluid - Answer (click here)
17. Alkalosis Increases the Ratio of HCO3-/H+ in Renal Tubular Fluid - Answer (click here)
18. Clinical Causes of Acid-Base Disorders - Answer (click here)
19. Treatment of Acidosis or Alkalosis - Answer (click here)
20. Clinical Measurements and Analysis of Acid-Base Disorders - Answer (click here)
21. Complex Acid-Base Disorders and Use of the Acid-Base Nomogram for Diagnosis - Answer (click here)
22. Use of Anion Gap to Diagnose Acid-Base Disorders - Answer (click here)

Kidney Diseases and Diuretics

1. Diuretics and Their Mechanisms of Action - Answer (click here)
2. Kidney Diseases - Answer (click here)
3. Acute Renal Failure - Answer (click here)
4. Prerenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Decreased Blood Flow to the Kidney - Answer (click here)
5. Intrarenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Abnormalities Within the Kidney - Answer (click here)
6. Postrenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Abnormalities of the Lower Urinary Tract - Answer (click here)
7. Physiologic Effects of Acute Renal Failure - Answer (click here)
8. Chronic Renal Failure: An Irreversible Decrease in the Number of Functional Nephrons - Answer (click here)
9. Vicious Circle of Chronic Renal Failure Leading to End-Stage Renal Disease - Answer (click here)
10. Injury to the Renal Vasculature as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure - Answer (click here)
11. Injury to the Glomeruli as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure- lomerulonephritis - Answer (click here)
12. Injury to the Renal Interstitium as a Cause of Chronic Renal Failure- Pyelonephritis - Answer (click here)
13. Nephrotic Syndrome-Excretion of Protein in the Urine Because of Increased Glomerular Permeability - Answer (click here)
14. Nephron Function in Chronic Renal Failure - Answer (click here)
15. Effects of Renal Failure on the Body Fluids-Uremia - Answer (click here)
16. Hypertension and Kidney Disease - Answer (click here)
17. Specific Tubular Disorders - Answer (click here)
18. Treatment of Renal Failure by Dialysis with an Artificial Kidney - Answer (click here)

Red Blood Cells Anemia and Polycythemia

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) - Answer (click here)
2. Formation of Hemoglobin - Answer (click here)
3. Iron Metabolism - Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) - Answer (click here)
4. Life Span and Destruction of Red Blood Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Anemias - Answer (click here)
6. Effects of Anemia on Function of the Circulatory System - Answer (click here)
7. Polycythemia - Answer (click here)
8. Effect of Polycythemia on Function of the Circulatory System - Answer (click here)

Resistance of the Body to Infection I Leukocytes Granulocytes the Monocyte Macrophage System and Inflammation

1. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) - Answer (click here)
2. General Characteristics of Leukocytes - Answer (click here)
3. Genesis of the White Blood Cells - Answer (click here)
4. Life Span of the White Blood Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Neutrophils and Macrophages Defend Against Infections - Answer (click here)
6. Phagocytosis - Answer (click here)
7. Monocyte-Macrophage Cell System (Reticuloendothelial System) - Answer (click here)
8. Inflammation: Role of Neutrophils and Macrophages - Answer (click here)
9. Eosinophils - Answer (click here)
10. Basophils - Answer (click here)
11. Leukopenia - Answer (click here)
12. Leukemias and Effects of Leukemia on the Body - Answer (click here)

Resistance of the Body to Infection II Immunity and Allergy

1. Innate Immunity - Answer (click here)
2. Acquired (Adaptive) Immunity - Answer (click here)
3. Lymphocytes Are Responsible for Acquired Immunity - Answer (click here)
4. Preprocessing of the T and B Lymphocytes - Answer (click here)
5. T Lymphocytes and B-Lymphocyte Antibodies React Highly Specifically Against Specific Antigens - Answer (click here)
6. Origin of the Many Clones of Lymphocytes - Answer (click here)
7. Specific Attributes of the B-Lymphocyte System - Humoral Immunity and the Antibodies - Answer (click here)
8. Special Attributes of the T-Lymphocyte System - Activated T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity - Answer (click here)
9. Several Types of T Cells and Their Different Functions - Answer (click here)
10. Tolerance of the Acquired Immunity System to One’s Own Tissues - Role of Preprocessing in the Thymus and Bone Marrow - Answer (click here)
11. Immunization by Injection of Antigens - Answer (click here)
12. Passive Immunity - Answer (click here)
13. Allergy and Hypersensitivity - Answer (click here)
14. Allergies in the “Allergic” Person, Who Has Excess IgE Antibodies - Answer (click here)

Blood Types Transfusion Tissue and Organ Transplantation

1. Antigenicity Causes Immune Reactions of Blood - Answer (click here)
2. O-A-B Blood Types - Answer (click here)
3. Rh Blood Types - Answer (click here)
4. Rh Immune Response - Answer (click here)
5. Transfusion Reactions Resulting from Mismatched Blood Types - Answer (click here)
6. Transplantation of Tissues and Organs - Answer (click here)

Hemostasis and Blood Coagulation

1. Events in Hemostasis - Answer (click here)
2. Mechanism of Blood Coagulation - Answer (click here)
3. Conversion of Prothrombin to Thrombin - Answer (click here)
4. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin- Formation of the Clot - Answer (click here)
5. Vicious Circle of Clot Formation - Mechanism of Blood Coagulation - Answer (click here)
6. Initiation of Coagulation: Formation of Prothrombin Activator - Answer (click here)
7. Prevention of Blood Clotting in the Normal Vascular System- Intravascular Anticoagulants - Answer (click here)
8. Lysis of Blood Clots- Plasmin - Answer (click here)
9. Conditions That Cause Excessive Bleeding in Human Beings - Answer (click here)
10. Thromboembolic Conditions in the Human Being - Answer (click here)
11. Anticoagulants for Clinical Use - Answer (click here)
12. Blood Coagulation Tests - Answer (click here)

Pulmonary Ventilation

1. Mechanics of Pulmonary Ventilation - Answer (click here)
2. Muscles That Cause Lung Expansion and Contraction - Answer (click here)
3. Movement of Air In and Out of the Lungs and the Pressures That Cause the Movement - Answer (click here)
4. Effect of the Thoracic Cage on Lung Expansibility - Answer (click here)
5. Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities - Answer (click here)
6. Minute Respiratory Volume Equals Respiratory Rate Times Tidal Volume - Answer (click here)
7. Alveolar Ventilation - Answer (click here)
8. Functions of the Respiratory Passageways - Answer (click here)
9. Normal Respiratory Functions of the Nose - Answer (click here)
10. Vocalization - Functions of the Respiratory Passageways - Answer (click here)

Pulmonary Circulation Pulmonary Edema Pleural Fluid

1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Pulmonary Circulatory System - Answer (click here)
2. Pressures in the Pulmonary System - Answer (click here)
3. Blood Flow Through the Lungs and Its Distribution - Answer (click here)
4. Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure Gradients in the Lungs on Regional Pulmonary Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
5. Pulmonary Capillary Dynamics - Answer (click here)
6. Capillary Exchange of Fluid in the Lungs, and Pulmonary Interstitial Fluid Dynamics - Answer (click here)
7. Pulmonary Edema - Answer (click here)
8. Fluid in the Pleural Cavity - Answer (click here)

Physical Principles of Gas Exchange Diffusion of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Through the Respiratory Membrane

1. Physics of Gas Diffusion and Gas Partial Pressures - Answer (click here)
2. Composition of Alveolar Air - Its Relation to Atmospheric Air - Answer (click here)
3. Diffusion of Gases Through the Respiratory Membrane - Answer (click here)
4. Factors That Affect the Rate of Gas Diffusion Through the Respiratory Membrane - Answer (click here)
5. Diffusing Capacity of the Respiratory Membrane - Answer (click here)
6. Effect of the Ventilation-Perfusion Ratio on Alveolar Gas Concentration - Answer (click here)

Transport of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Blood and Tissue Fluids

1. Transport of Oxygen from the Lungs to the Body Tissues - Answer (click here)
2. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Alveoli to the Pulmonary Capillary Blood - Answer (click here)
3. Transport of Oxygen in the Arterial Blood - Answer (click here)
4. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries into the Tissue Fluid - Answer (click here)
5. Diffusion of Oxygen from the Peripheral Capillaries to the Tissue Cells - Answer (click here)
6. Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide from the Peripheral Tissue Cells into the Capillaries and from the Pulmonary Capillaries into the Alveoli - Answer (click here)
7. Role of Hemoglobin in Oxygen Transport - Answer (click here)
8. Reversible Combination of Oxygen with Hemoglobin - Answer (click here)
9. Effect of Hemoglobin to “Buffer” the Tissue PO2 - Answer (click here)
10. Factors That Shift the Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve - Their Importance for Oxygen Transport - Answer (click here)
11. Metabolic Use of Oxygen by the Cells - Answer (click here)
12. Transport of Oxygen in the Dissolved State - Answer (click here)
13. Combination of Hemoglobin with Carbon Monoxide -Displacement of Oxygen - Answer (click here)
14. Transport of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood - Answer (click here)
15. Respiratory Exchange Ratio - Answer (click here)

Regulation of Respiration

1. Respiratory Center - Answer (click here)
2. Chemical Control of Respiration - Answer (click here)
3. Peripheral Chemoreceptor System for Control of Respiratory Activity - Role of Oxygen in Respiratory Control - Answer (click here)
4. Regulation of Respiration During Exercise - Answer (click here)
5. Other Factors That Affect Respiration - Answer (click here)
6. Sleep Apnea - Answer (click here)

Respiratory Insufficiency Pathophysiology Diagnosis Oxygen Therapy

1. Respiratory Insufficiency-Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Oxygen Therapy - Answer (click here)
2. Study of Blood Gases and Blood pH - Answer (click here)
3. Measurement of Maximum Expiratory Flow - Answer (click here)
4. Forced Expiratory Vital Capacity and Forced Expiratory Volume - Answer (click here)
5. Physiologic Peculiarities of Specific Pulmonary Abnormalities - Answer (click here)
6. Chronic Pulmonary Emphysema - Answer (click here)
7. Pneumonia - Answer (click here)
8. Atelectasis - Answer (click here)
9. Asthma - Answer (click here)
10. Tuberculosis - Answer (click here)
11. Hypoxia and Oxygen Therapy - Answer (click here)
12. Hypercapnia - Answer (click here)
13. Artificial Respiration - Answer (click here)

Aviation High Altitude and Space Physiology

1. Effects of Low Oxygen Pressure on the Body - Answer (click here)
2. Alveolar PO2 at Different Elevations - Answer (click here)
3. Effect of Breathing Pure Oxygen on Alveolar PO2 at Different Altitudes - Answer (click here)
4. Acute Effects of Hypoxia - Answer (click here)
5. Acclimatization to Low PO2 - Answer (click here)
6. Natural Acclimatization of Native Human Beings Living at High Altitudes - Answer (click here)
7. Reduced Work Capacity at High Altitudes and Positive Effect of Acclimatization - Answer (click here)
8. Acute Mountain Sickness and High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema - Answer (click here)
9. Chronic Mountain Sickness - Answer (click here)
10. Effects of Acceleratory Forces on the Body in Aviation and Space Physiology - Answer (click here)
11. “Artificial Climate” in the Sealed Spacecraft - Answer (click here)
12. Weightlessness in Space - Answer (click here)

Physiology of Deep Sea Diving and Other Hyperbaric Conditions

1. Physiology of Deep-Sea Diving and Other Hyperbaric Conditions - Answer (click here)
2. Effect of High Partial Pressures of Individual Gases on the Body - Answer (click here)
3. Nitrogen Narcosis at High Nitrogen Pressures - Answer (click here)
4. Oxygen Toxicity at High Pressures - Answer (click here)
5. Carbon Dioxide Toxicity at Great Depths in the Sea - Answer (click here)
6. Decompression of the Diver After Excess Exposure to High Pressure - Answer (click here)
7. Scuba (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) Diving - Answer (click here)
8. Special Physiologic Problems in Submarines - Answer (click here)
9. Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy - Answer (click here)

Organization of the Nervous System Basic Functions of Synapses Transmitter Substances

1. General Design of the Nervous System - Answer (click here)
2. Major Levels of Central Nervous System Function - Answer (click here)
3. Comparison of the Nervous System with a Computer - Answer (click here)
4. Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
5. Types of Synapses-Chemical and Electrical - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
6. Physiologic Anatomy of the Synapse - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
7. Chemical Substances That Function as Synaptic Transmitters - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
8. Electrical Events During Neuronal Excitation - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
9. Electrical Events During Neuronal Inhibition - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
10. Special Functions of Dendrites for Exciting Neurons - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
11. Relation of State of Excitation of the Neuron to Rate of Firing - Central Nervous System Synapses - Answer (click here)
12. Some Special Characteristics of Synaptic Transmission - Answer (click here)

Sensory Receptors Neuronal Circuits for Processing Information

1. Types of Sensory Receptors and the Sensory Stimuli They Detect - Answer (click here)
2. Transduction of Sensory Stimuli into Nerve Impulses - Answer (click here)
3. Nerve Fibers That Transmit Different Types of Signals, and Their Physiologic Classification - Answer (click here)
4. Transmission of Signals of Different Intensity in Nerve Tracts-Spatial and Temporal Summation - Answer (click here)
5. Transmission and Processing of Signals in Neuronal Pools - Answer (click here)
6. Relaying of Signals Through Neuronal Pools - Answer (click here)
7. Prolongation of a Signal by a Neuronal Pool-“Afterdischarge” - Answer (click here)
8. Instability and Stability of Neuronal Circuits - Answer (click here)

Somatic Sensations I General Organization the Tactile and Position Senses

1. Classification of Somatic Senses - Answer (click here)
2. Detection and Transmission of Tactile Sensations - Answer (click here)
3. Sensory Pathways for Transmitting Somatic Signals into the Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)
4. Anatomy of the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System - Answer (click here)
5. Somatosensory Cortex - Answer (click here)
6. Somatosensory Association Areas - Answer (click here)
7. Overall Characteristics of Signal Transmission and Analysis in the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal System - Answer (click here)
8. Interpretation of Sensory Stimulus Intensity - Answer (click here)
9. Judgment of Stimulus Intensity - Answer (click here)
10. Position Senses(proprioceptive senses) - Answer (click here)
11. Transmission of Less Critical Sensory Signals in the Anterolateral Pathway - Answer (click here)
12. Some Special Aspects of Somatosensory Function - Answer (click here)

Somatic Sensations II Pain Headache and Thermal Sensations

1. Types of Pain and Their Qualities-Fast Pain and Slow Pain - Answer (click here)
2. Pain Receptors and Their Stimulation - Answer (click here)
3. Dual Pathways for Transmission of Pain Signals into the Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)
4. Pain Suppression (“Analgesia”) System in the Brain and Spinal Cord - Answer (click here)
5. Referred Pain - Answer (click here)
6. Visceral Pain - Answer (click here)
7. Causes of True Visceral Pain - Answer (click here)
8. Some Clinical Abnormalities of Pain and Other Somatic Sensations - Answer (click here)
9. Headache - Answer (click here)
10. Headache of Intracranial Origin - Answer (click here)
11. Types of Intracranial Headache - Answer (click here)
12. Extracranial Types of Headache - Answer (click here)
13. Thermal Receptors and Their Excitation - Answer (click here)
14. Transmission of Thermal Signals in the Nervous System - Answer (click here)

The Eye I Optics of Vision

1. Physical Principles of Optics - Eye - Answer (click here)
2. The Eye as a Camera - Optics of the Eye - Answer (click here)
3. Mechanism of “Accommodation” - Optics of the Eye - Answer (click here)
4. Pupillary Diameter - Optics of the Eye - Answer (click here)
5. Errors of Refraction - Optics of the Eye - Answer (click here)
6. Visual Acuity - Optics of the Eye - Answer (click here)
7. Determination of Distance of an Object from the Eye- “Depth Perception” - Answer (click here)
8. Ophthalmoscope - Answer (click here)
9. Fluid System of the Eye- Intraocular Fluid - Answer (click here)

The Eye II Receptor and Neural Function of the Retina

1. Anatomy and Function of the Structural Elements of the Retina - Answer (click here)

The Eye I Optics of Vision

1. Photochemistry of Eye Vision - Answer (click here)

The Eye II Receptor and Neural Function of the Retina

1. Rhodopsin Retinal Visual Cycle, and Excitation of the Rods - Photochemistry of Eye Vision - Answer (click here)
2. Automatic Regulation of Retinal Sensitivity-Light and Dark Adaptation - Photochemistry of Eye Vision - Answer (click here)
3. Color Vision: Tricolor Mechanism of Color Detection, Color Blindness - Answer (click here)
4. Neural Circuitry of the Retina - Neural Function of the Retina - Answer (click here)
5. Ganglion Cells and Optic Nerve Fibers - Neural Function of the Retina - Answer (click here)
6. Excitation of the Ganglion Cells - Neural Function of the Retina - Answer (click here)

The Eye III Central Neurophysiology of Vision

1. Visual Pathways - Answer (click here)
2. Organization and Function of the Visual Cortex - Answer (click here)
3. Neuronal Patterns of Stimulation During Analysis of the Visual Image - Answer (click here)
4. Fields of Vision; Perimetry - Answer (click here)
5. Eye Movements and Their Control - Answer (click here)
6. Fixation Movements of the Eyes - Answer (click here)
7. “Fusion” of the Visual Images from the Two Eyes - Answer (click here)
8. Autonomic Control of Accommodation and Pupillary Aperture - Answer (click here)
9. Control of Accommodation (Focusing the Eyes) - Answer (click here)
10. Control of Pupillary Diameter - Answer (click here)

The Sense of Hearing

1. Tympanic Membrane and the Ossicular System - Answer (click here)
2. Functional Anatomy of the Cochlea - Answer (click here)
3. Transmission of Sound Waves in the Cochlea-“Traveling Wave” - Answer (click here)
4. Function of the Organ of Corti - Answer (click here)
5. Determination of Sound Frequency- The “Place” Principle - Cochlea - Answer (click here)
6. Determination of Loudness - Answer (click here)
7. Auditory Nervous Pathways - Answer (click here)
8. Function of the Cerebral Cortex in Hearing - Answer (click here)
9. Determination of the Direction from Which Sound Comes - Answer (click here)
10. Centrifugal Signals from the Central Nervous System to Lower Auditory Centers - Answer (click here)
11. Hearing Abnormalities: Types of Deafness - Answer (click here)

The Chemical Senses Taste and Smell

1. Sense of Taste - Answer (click here)
2. Primary Sensations of Taste - Answer (click here)
3. Taste Bud and Its Function - Answer (click here)
4. Transmission of Taste Signals into the Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)
5. Taste Preference and Control of the Diet - Answer (click here)
6. Sense of Smell - Answer (click here)
7. Olfactory Membrane - Sense of Smell - Answer (click here)
8. Stimulation of the Olfactory Cells - Sense of Smell - Answer (click here)
9. Transmission of Smell Signals into the Central Nervous System - Answer (click here)

Motor Functions of the Spinal Cord the Cord Reflexes

1. Organization of the Spinal Cord for Motor Functions - Answer (click here)
2. Muscle Sensory Receptors- Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs-And Their Roles in Muscle Control - Answer (click here)
3. Receptor Function of the Muscle Spindle - Answer (click here)
4. Muscle Stretch Reflex - Answer (click here)
5. Role of the Muscle Spindle in Voluntary Motor Activity - Answer (click here)
6. Clinical Applications of the Stretch Reflex - Answer (click here)
7. Golgi Tendon Reflex - Answer (click here)
8. Function of the Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organ - Answer (click here)
9. Flexor Reflex and the Withdrawal Reflexes - Answer (click here)
10. Crossed Extensor Reflex - Answer (click here)
11. Reciprocal Inhibition and Reciprocal Innervation - Answer (click here)
12. Postural and Locomotive Reflexes of the Cord - Answer (click here)
13. Scratch Reflex - Answer (click here)
14. Spinal Cord Reflexes That Cause Muscle Spasm - Answer (click here)
15. Autonomic Reflexes in the Spinal Cord - Answer (click here)
16. Spinal Cord Transection and Spinal Shock - Answer (click here)

Cortical and Brain Stem Control of Motor Function

1. Motor Cortex and Corticospinal Tract - Answer (click here)
2. Some Specialized Areas of Motor Control Found in the Human Motor Cortex - Answer (click here)
3. Transmission of Signals from the Motor Cortex to the Muscles - Answer (click here)
4. Incoming Fiber Pathways to the Motor Cortex - Answer (click here)
5. Red Nucleus Serves as an Alternative Pathway for Transmitting Cortical Signals to the Spinal Cord - Answer (click here)
6. “Extrapyramidal” System - Answer (click here)
7. Excitation of the Spinal Cord Motor Control Areas by the Primary Motor Cortex and Red Nucleus - Answer (click here)
8. Role of the Brain Stem in Controlling Motor Function - Answer (click here)
9. Support of the Body Against Gravity- Roles of the Reticular and Vestibular Nuclei - Answer (click here)
10. Vestibular Apparatus - Answer (click here)
11. Function of the Utricle and Saccule in the Maintenance of Static Equilibrium - Answer (click here)
12. Detection of Head Rotation by the Semicircular Ducts - Answer (click here)
13. Vestibular Mechanisms for Stabilizing the Eyes - Answer (click here)
14. Other Factors Concerned with Equilibrium - Vestibular Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
15. Functions of Brain Stem Nuclei in Controlling Subconscious, Stereotyped Movements - Answer (click here)

Contributions of the Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia to Overall Motor Control

1. Cerebellum and Its Motor Functions - Answer (click here)
2. Anatomical Functional Areas of the Cerebellum - Answer (click here)
3. Neuronal Circuit of the Cerebellum - Answer (click here)
4. Function of the Cerebellum in Overall Motor Control - Answer (click here)
5. Clinical Abnormalities of the Cerebellum - Answer (click here)
6. Basal Ganglia-Their Motor Functions - Answer (click here)
7. Clinical Syndromes Resulting from Damage to the Basal Ganglia - Answer (click here)
8. Integration of the Many Parts of the Total Motor Control System - Answer (click here)

Cerebral Cortex Intellectual Functions of the Brain Learning and Memory

1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Cerebral Cortex - Answer (click here)
2. Functions of Specific Cortical Areas - Answer (click here)
3. Association Areas - Functions of Specific Cortical Areas - Answer (click here)
4. Comprehensive Interpretative Function of the Posterior Superior Temporal Lobe-“Wernicke’s Area” (a General Interpretative Area) - Answer (click here)
5. Functions of the Parieto-occipitotemporal Cortex in the Nondominant Hemisphere - Answer (click here)
6. Higher Intellectual Functions of the Prefrontal Association Areas - Answer (click here)
7. Function of the Brain in Communication-Language Input and Language Output - Answer (click here)
8. Function of the Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure - Answer (click here)
9. Thoughts, Consciousness, and Memory - Answer (click here)
10. Memory-Roles of Synaptic Facilitation and Synaptic Inhibition - Answer (click here)
11. Short-Term Memory - Answer (click here)
12. Intermediate Long-Term Memory - Answer (click here)
13. Long-Term Memory - Answer (click here)
14. Consolidation of Memory - Answer (click here)

Behavioral and Motivational Mechanisms of the Brain The Limbic System and the Hypothalamus

1. Activating-Driving Systems of the Brain - Answer (click here)
2. Control of Cerebral Activity by Continuous Excitatory Signals from the Brain Stem - Answer (click here)
3. Neurohormonal Control of Brain Activity - Answer (click here)
4. Limbic System - Answer (click here)
5. Functional Anatomy of the Limbic System; Key Position of the Hypothalamus - Answer (click here)
6. Hypothalamus, a Major Control Headquarters for the Limbic System - Answer (click here)
7. Vegetative and Endocrine Control Functions of the Hypothalamus - Answer (click here)
8. Behavioral Functions of the Hypothalamus and Associated Limbic Structures - Answer (click here)
9. “Reward” and “Punishment” Function of the Limbic System - Answer (click here)
10. Importance of Reward or Punishment in Behavior - Answer (click here)
11. Functions of the Hippocampus - Answer (click here)
12. Functions of the Amygdala - Answer (click here)
13. Function of the Limbic Cortex - Answer (click here)

States of Brain Activity Sleep Brain Waves Epilepsy Psychoses

1. Sleep and Two Types of Sleep - Answer (click here)
2. Slow-Wave Sleep - Answer (click here)
3. REM Sleep (Paradoxical Sleep, Desynchronized Sleep) - Answer (click here)
4. Basic Theories of Sleep - Answer (click here)
5. Physiologic Effects of Sleep - Answer (click here)
6. Brain Waves - Answer (click here)
7. Origin of Brain Waves - Answer (click here)
8. Epilepsy - Answer (click here)
9. Psychotic Behavior and Dementia-Roles of Specific Neurotransmitter Systems - Answer (click here)

The Autonomic Nervous System and the Adrenal Medulla

1. General Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System - Answer (click here)
2. Cholinergic and Adrenergic Fibers- Secretion of Acetylcholine or Norepinephrine - Answer (click here)
3. Receptors on the Effector Organs - Answer (click here)
4. Excitatory and Inhibitory Actions of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Stimulation - Answer (click here)
5. Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Stimulation on Specific Organs - Answer (click here)
6. Function of the Adrenal Medullae - Answer (click here)
7. Relation of Stimulus Rate to Degree of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Effect - Answer (click here)
8. Sympathetic and Parasympathetic “Tone” - Answer (click here)
9. Denervation Supersensitivity of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Organs After Denervation - Answer (click here)
10. Stimulation of Discrete Organs in Some Instances and Mass Stimulation - Answer (click here)
11. Pharmacology of the Autonomic Nervous System - Answer (click here)

Cerebral Blood Flow Cerebrospinal Fluid and Brain Metabolism

1. Normal Rate of Cerebral Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
2. Regulation of Cerebral Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
3. Cerebral Microcirculation - Answer (click here)
4. Cerebral “Stroke” Occurs When Cerebral Blood Vessels Are Blocked - Answer (click here)
5. Cerebrospinal Fluid System - Answer (click here)
6. Cushioning Function of the Cerebrospinal Fluid - Answer (click here)
7. Formation, Flow, and Absorption of Cerebrospinal Fluid - Answer (click here)
8. Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure - Answer (click here)
9. Obstruction to Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid Can Cause Hydrocephalus - Answer (click here)
10. Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid and Blood-Brain Barriers - Answer (click here)
11. Brain Edema - Answer (click here)
12. Brain Metabolism - Answer (click here)

General Principles of Gastrointestinal Function Motility Nervous Control and Blood Circulation

1. General Principles of Gastrointestinal Motility - Answer (click here)
2. Neural Control of Gastrointestinal Function- Enteric Nervous System - Answer (click here)
3. Differences Between the Myenteric and Submucosal Plexuses - Answer (click here)
4. Types of Neurotransmitters Secreted by Enteric Neurons - Answer (click here)
5. Hormonal Control of Gastrointestinal Motility - Answer (click here)
6. Functional Types of Movements in the Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)
7. Gastrointestinal Blood Flow- “Splanchnic Circulation” - Answer (click here)
8. Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal Blood Supply - Answer (click here)
9. Effect of Gut Activity and Metabolic Factors on Gastrointestinal Blood Flow - Answer (click here)
10. Nervous Control of Gastrointestinal Blood Flow - Answer (click here)

Propulsion and Mixing of Food in the Alimentary Tract

1. Ingestion of Food - Answer (click here)
2. Motor Functions of the Stomach - Answer (click here)
3. Stomach Emptying and Regulation of Stomach Emptying - Answer (click here)
4. Movements of the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
5. Mixing Contractions (Segmentation Contractions) - Movements of the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
6. Propulsive Movements of the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
7. Function of the Ileocecal Valve - Answer (click here)
8. Movements of the Colon - Answer (click here)
9. Other Autonomic Reflexes That Affect Bowel Activity - Answer (click here)

Secretory Functions of the Alimentary Tract

1. General Principles of Alimentary Tract Secretion - Answer (click here)
2. Anatomical Types of Glands - Answer (click here)
3. Basic Mechanisms of Stimulation of the Alimentary Tract Glands - Answer (click here)
4. Basic Mechanism of Secretion by Glandular Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Lubricating and Protective Properties of Mucus, and Importance of Mucus in the Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)
6. Secretion of Saliva - Answer (click here)
7. Nervous Regulation of Salivary Secretion - Answer (click here)
8. Esophageal Secretion - Answer (click here)
9. Characteristics of the Gastric Secretions - Answer (click here)
10. Pyloric Glands-Secretion of Mucus and Gastrin - Answer (click here)
11. Surface Mucous Cells - Answer (click here)
12. Stimulation of Gastric Acid Secretion - Answer (click here)
13. Regulation of Pepsinogen Secretion and Phases of Gastric Secretion - Answer (click here)
14. Inhibition of Gastric Secretion by Other Post-Stomach Intestinal Factors - Answer (click here)
15. Chemical Composition of Gastrin and Other Gastrointestinal Hormones - Answer (click here)
16. Pancreatic Secretion - Answer (click here)
17. Pancreatic Digestive Enzymes - Answer (click here)
18. Secretion of Bicarbonate Ions - Answer (click here)
19. Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion - Answer (click here)
20. Secretion of Bile by the Liver; Functions of the Biliary Tree - Answer (click here)
21. Physiologic Anatomy of Biliary Secretion - Answer (click here)
22. Function of Bile Salts in Fat Digestion and Absorption - Answer (click here)
23. Liver Secretion of Cholesterol and Gallstone Formation - Answer (click here)
24. Secretions of the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
25. Secretions of the Large Intestine - Answer (click here)

Digestion and Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract

1. Digestion of the Various Foods by Hydrolysis - Answer (click here)
2. Digestion of Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
3. Digestion of Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. Digestion of Fats - Answer (click here)
5. Basic Principles of Gastrointestinal Absorption - Answer (click here)
6. Absorption in the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
7. Absorption of Water in the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
8. Absorption of Ions in the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
9. Absorption of Nutrients in the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
10. Absorption in the Large Intestine: Formation of Feces - Answer (click here)

Physiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders

1. Disorders of Swallowing and of the Esophagus - Answer (click here)
2. Disorders of the Stomach - Answer (click here)
3. Peptic Ulcer - Disorders of the Stomach - Answer (click here)
4. Specific Causes of Peptic Ulcer in the Human Being - Answer (click here)
5. Disorders of the Small Intestine - Answer (click here)
6. Abnormal Digestion of Food in the Small Intestine-Pancreatic Failure - Answer (click here)
7. Malabsorption by the Small Intestinal Mucosa-Sprue - Answer (click here)
8. Disorders of the Large Intestine - Answer (click here)
9. General Disorders of the Gastrointestinal Tract - Answer (click here)

Metabolism of Carbohydrates and Formation of Adenosine Triphosphate

1. Release of Energy from Foods, and the Concept of “Free Energy” - Answer (click here)
2. Role of Adenosine Triphosphate in Metabolism - Answer (click here)
3. Central Role of Glucose in Carbohydrate Metabolism - Answer (click here)
4. Transport of Glucose Through the Cell Membrane - Answer (click here)
5. Glycogen Is Stored in Liver and Muscle - Answer (click here)
6. Release of Energy from the Glucose Molecule by the Glycolytic Pathway - Answer (click here)
7. Summary of ATP Formation During the Breakdown of Glucose - Answer (click here)
8. Effect of ATP and ADP Cell Concentrations in Controlling the Rate of Glycolysis - Answer (click here)
9. Anaerobic Release of Energy- “Anaerobic Glycolysis” - Answer (click here)
10. Release of Energy from Glucose by the Pentose Phosphate Pathway - Answer (click here)
11. Formation of Carbohydrates from Proteins and Fats- “Gluconeogenesis” - Answer (click here)
12. Blood Glucose - Answer (click here)

Lipid Metabolism

1. Lipid Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Transport of Lipids in the Body Fluids - Answer (click here)
3. Fat Deposits: Adipose Tissue, Liver Lipids - Answer (click here)
4. Use of Triglycerides for Energy: Formation of Adenosine Triphosphate - Answer (click here)
5. Formation of Acetoacetic Acid in the Liver and Its Transport in the Blood - Answer (click here)
6. Synthesis of Triglycerides from Carbohydrates - Answer (click here)
7. Synthesis of Triglycerides from Proteins - Answer (click here)
8. Regulation of Energy Release from Triglycerides - Answer (click here)
9. Phospholipids - Answer (click here)
10. Cholesterol - Answer (click here)
11. Cellular Structural Functions of Phospholipids and Cholesterol- Especially for Membranes - Answer (click here)
12. Atherosclerosis - Answer (click here)
13. Basic Causes of Atherosclerosis - The Roles of Cholesterol and Lipoproteins - Answer (click here)
14. Few Major Risk Factors for Atherosclerosis - Answer (click here)
15. Prevention of Atherosclerosis - Answer (click here)

Protein Metabolism

1. Basic Properties of Protein Metabolism: Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
2. Transport and Storage of Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
3. Functional Roles of the Plasma Proteins - Answer (click here)
4. Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids - Answer (click here)
5. Use of Proteins for Energy - Answer (click here)
6. Obligatory Degradation of Proteins - Answer (click here)
7. Hormonal Regulation of Protein Metabolism - Answer (click here)

The Liver as an Organ

1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Liver - Answer (click here)
2. Hepatic Vascular and Lymph Systems - Answer (click here)
3. Metabolic Functions of the Liver - Answer (click here)
4. Measurement of Bilirubin in the Bile as a Clinical Diagnostic Tool - Answer (click here)
5. Jaundice-Excess Bilirubin in the Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)

Dietary Balances Regulation of Feeding Obesity and Starvation Vitamins and Minerals

1. Energy Intake and Output Are Balanced Under Steady- State Conditions - Answer (click here)
2. Dietary Balances: Energy Available in Foods - Answer (click here)
3. Methods for Determining Metabolic Utilization of Proteins, Carbohydrates, and Fats - Answer (click here)
4. Regulation of Food Intake and Energy Storage - Answer (click here)
5. Neural Centers Regulate Food Intake - Answer (click here)
6. Factors That Regulate Quantity of Food Intake - Answer (click here)
7. Obesity - Answer (click here)
8. Decreased Physical Activity and Abnormal Feeding Regulation as Causes of Obesity - Answer (click here)
9. Treatment of Obesity - Answer (click here)
10. Inanition, Anorexia, and Cachexia - Answer (click here)
11. Starvation - Answer (click here)
12. Vitamins - Answer (click here)
13. Vitamin A - Answer (click here)
14. Thiamine (Vitamin B1) - Answer (click here)
15. Niacin - Answer (click here)
16. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) - Answer (click here)
17. Vitamin B12 - Answer (click here)
18. Folic Acid (Pteroylglutamic Acid) - Answer (click here)
19. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) - Answer (click here)
20. Pantothenic Acid - Answer (click here)
21. Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) - Answer (click here)
22. Vitamin D - Answer (click here)
23. Vitamin E - Answer (click here)
24. Vitamin K - Answer (click here)
25. Mineral Metabolism - Answer (click here)

Energetics and Metabolic Rate

1. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Functions as an “Energy Currency” in Metabolism - Answer (click here)
2. Phosphocreatine Functions as an Accessory Storage Depot for Energy and as an “ATP Buffer” - Answer (click here)
3. Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Energy - Answer (click here)
4. Summary of Energy Utilization by the Cells - Answer (click here)
5. Control of Energy Release in the Cell - Answer (click here)
6. Metabolic Rate - Answer (click here)
7. Measurement of the Whole-Body Metabolic Rate - Answer (click here)
8. Energy Metabolism-Factors That Influence Energy Output - Answer (click here)
9. Overall Energy Requirements for Daily Activities - Answer (click here)
10. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)- The Minimum Energy Expenditure for the Body to Exist - Answer (click here)
11. Energy Used for Physical Activities - Answer (click here)

Body Temperature Temperature Regulation and Fever

1. Normal Body Temperatures - Answer (click here)
2. Body Temperature Is Controlled by Balancing Heat Production Against Heat Loss - Answer (click here)
3. Regulation of Body Temperature-Role of the Hypothalamus - Answer (click here)
4. Neuronal Effector Mechanisms That Decrease or Increase Body Temperature - Answer (click here)
5. Concept of a “Set-Point” for Temperature Control - Answer (click here)
6. Behavioral Control of Body Temperature - Answer (click here)
7. Abnormalities of Body Temperature Regulation - Answer (click here)
8. Exposure of the Body to Extreme Cold - Answer (click here)

Introduction to Endocrinology

1. Coordination of Body Functions by Chemical Messengers - Answer (click here)
2. Chemical Structure and Synthesis of Hormones - Answer (click here)
3. Hormone Secretion, Transport, and Clearance from the Blood - Answer (click here)
4. Hormone Receptors and Their Activation - Answer (click here)
5. Intracellular Signaling After Hormone Receptor Activation - Answer (click here)
6. Second Messenger Mechanisms for Mediating Intracellular Hormonal Functions - Answer (click here)
7. Hormones That Act Mainly on the Genetic Machinery of the Cell - Answer (click here)
8. Measurement of Hormone Concentrations in the Blood - Answer (click here)

Pituitary Hormones and Their Control by the Hypothalamus

1. Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus - Answer (click here)
2. Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion - Answer (click here)
3. Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone - Answer (click here)
4. Growth Hormone Promotes Growth of Many Body Tissues - Answer (click here)
5. Growth Hormone Has Several Metabolic Effects - Answer (click here)
6. Growth Hormone Stimulates Cartilage and Bone Growth - Answer (click here)
7. Growth Hormone Exerts Much of Its Effect Through Intermediate Substances Called “Somatomedins” - Answer (click here)
8. Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretion - Answer (click here)
9. Abnormalities of Growth Hormone Secretion - Answer (click here)
10. Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its Relation to the Hypothalamus - Answer (click here)
11. Physiological Functions of ADH - Answer (click here)
12. Oxytocic Hormone - Answer (click here)

Thyroid Metabolic Hormones

1. Thyroid Metabolic Hormones - Answer (click here)
2. Synthesis and Secretion of the Thyroid Metabolic Hormones - Answer (click here)
3. Physiologic Functions of the Thyroid Hormones - Answer (click here)
4. Thyroid Hormones Increase the Transcription of Large Numbers of Genes - Answer (click here)
5. Thyroid Hormones Increase Cellular Metabolic Activity - Answer (click here)
6. Effect of Thyroid Hormone on Growth - Answer (click here)
7. Effects of Thyroid Hormone on Specific Bodily Mechanisms - Answer (click here)
8. Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion - Answer (click here)
9. Diseases of the Thyroid - Answer (click here)
10. Hyperthyroidism - Answer (click here)
11. Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism - Answer (click here)
12. Hypothyroidism - Answer (click here)
13. Cretinism - Answer (click here)

Adrenocortical Hormones

1. Adrenocortical Hormones - Answer (click here)
2. Synthesis and Secretion of Adrenocortical Hormones - Answer (click here)
3. Functions of the Mineralocorticoids- Aldosterone - Answer (click here)
4. Renal and Circulatory Effects of Aldosterone - Answer (click here)
5. Aldosterone Stimulates Sodium and Potassium Transport - Answer (click here)
6. Cellular Mechanism of Aldosterone Action - Answer (click here)
7. Possible Nongenomic Actions of Aldosterone and Other Steroid Hormones - Answer (click here)
8. Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion - Answer (click here)
9. Functions of the Glucocorticoids - Answer (click here)
10. Effects of Cortisol on Carbohydrate Metabolism - Answer (click here)
11. Effects of Cortisol on Protein Metabolism - Answer (click here)
12. Effects of Cortisol on Fat Metabolism - Answer (click here)
13. Cortisol is Important in Resisting Stress and Inflammation - Answer (click here)
14. Other Effects of Cortisol - Answer (click here)
15. Cellular Mechanism of Cortisol Action - Answer (click here)
16. Regulation of Cortisol Secretion by Adrenocorticotropic Hormone from the Pituitary Gland - Answer (click here)
17. Adrenal Androgens - Answer (click here)
18. Abnormalities of Adrenocortical Secretion - Answer (click here)
19. Hypoadrenalism-Addison’s Disease - Answer (click here)
20. Hyperadrenalism-Cushing’s Syndrome - Answer (click here)
21. Primary Aldosteronism (Conn’s Syndrome) - Answer (click here)
22. Adrenogenital Syndrome - Answer (click here)

Insulin Glucagon and Diabetes Mellitus

1. Insulin and Its Metabolic Effects - Answer (click here)
2. Effect of Insulin on Carbohydrate Metabolism - Answer (click here)
3. Effect of Insulin on Fat Metabolism - Answer (click here)
4. Effect of Insulin on Protein Metabolism and on Growth - Answer (click here)
5. Mechanisms of Insulin Secretion - Answer (click here)
6. Control of Insulin Secretion - Answer (click here)
7. Other Factors That Stimulate Insulin Secretion - Answer (click here)
8. Role of Insulin (and Other Hormones) in “Switching” Between Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism - Answer (click here)
9. Glucagon and Its Functions - Answer (click here)
10. Somatostatin Inhibits Glucagon and Insulin Secretion - Answer (click here)
11. Summary of Blood Glucose Regulation - Answer (click here)
12. Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click here)
13. Type I Diabetes-Lack of Insulin Production by Beta Cells of the Pancreas - Answer (click here)
14. Type II Diabetes-Resistance to the Metabolic Effects of Insulin - Answer (click here)
15. Physiology of Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus - Answer (click here)
16. Treatment of Diabetes - Answer (click here)
17. Insulinoma-Hyperinsulinism - Answer (click here)

Parathyroid Hormone Calcitonin Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism Vitamin D Bone and Teeth

1. Overview of Calcium and Phosphate Regulation in the Extracellular Fluid and Plasma - Answer (click here)
2. Bone and Its Relation to Extracellular Calcium and Phosphate - Answer (click here)
3. Precipitation and Absorption of Calcium and Phosphate in Bone-Equilibrium with the Extracellular Fluids - Answer (click here)
4. Calcium Exchange Between Bone and Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
5. Deposition and Absorption of Bone-Remodeling of Bone - Answer (click here)
6. Vitamin D and Actions of Vitamin D - Answer (click here)
7. Parathyroid Hormone - Answer (click here)
8. Effect of Parathyroid Hormone on Calcium and Phosphate Concentrations in the Extracellular Fluid - Answer (click here)
9. Control of Parathyroid Secretion by Calcium Ion Concentration - Answer (click here)
10. Calcitonin - Answer (click here)
11. Summary of Control of Calcium Ion Concentration - Answer (click here)
12. Hypoparathyroidism - Answer (click here)
13. Primary Hyperparathyroidism - Answer (click here)
14. Secondary Hyperparathyroidism - Answer (click here)
15. Rickets-Vitamin D Deficiency - Answer (click here)
16. Osteoporosis-Decreased Bone Matrix - Answer (click here)
17. Physiology of the Teeth - Answer (click here)
18. Function of the Different Parts of the Teeth - Answer (click here)
19. Dentition - Answer (click here)
20. Mineral Exchange in Teeth - Answer (click here)
21. Dental Abnormalities - Answer (click here)

Reproductive and Hormonal Functions of the Male and Function of the Pineal Gland

1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Male Sexual Organs - Answer (click here)
2. Spermatogenesis - Answer (click here)
3. Steps of Spermatogenesis - Answer (click here)
4. Function of the Seminal Vesicles - Answer (click here)
5. Function of the Prostate Gland - Answer (click here)
6. Semen - Answer (click here)
7. Abnormal Spermatogenesis and Male Fertility - Answer (click here)
8. Neuronal Stimulus for Performance of the Male Sexual Act - Answer (click here)
9. Stages of the Male Sexual Act - Answer (click here)
10. Secretion, Metabolism, and Chemistry of the Male Sex Hormone - Answer (click here)
11. Functions of Testosterone - Answer (click here)
12. Basic Intracellular Mechanism of Action of Testosterone - Answer (click here)
13. Control of Male Sexual Functions by Hormones from the Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary Gland - Answer (click here)
14. Abnormalities of Male Sexual Function - Answer (click here)
15. Prostate Gland and Its Abnormalities - Answer (click here)
16. Hypogonadism in the Male - Answer (click here)
17. Testicular Tumors and Hypergonadism in the Male - Answer (click here)
18. Pineal Gland-Its Function in Controlling Seasonal Fertility in Some Animals - Answer (click here)

Female Physiology Before Pregnancy and Female Hormones

1. Physiologic Anatomy of the Female Sexual Organs - Answer (click here)
2. Female Hormonal System - Answer (click here)
3. Monthly Ovarian Cycle; Function of the Gonadotropic Hormones - Answer (click here)
4. Gonadotropic Hormones and Their Effects on the Ovaries - Answer (click here)
5. Ovarian Follicle Growth- “Follicular” Phase of the Ovarian Cycle - Answer (click here)
6. Corpus Luteum-“Luteal” Phase of the Ovarian Cycle - Answer (click here)
7. Functions of the Ovarian Hormones-Estradiol and Progesterone - Answer (click here)
8. Chemistry of the Sex Hormones - Answer (click here)
9. Functions of the Estrogens- Their Effects on the Primary and Secondary Female Sex Characteristics - Answer (click here)
10. Functions of Progesterone - Answer (click here)
11. Monthly Endometrial Cycle and Menstruation - Answer (click here)
12. Regulation of the Female Monthly Rhythm-Interplay Between the Ovarian and Hypothalamic-Pituitary Hormones - Answer (click here)
13. Feedback Oscillation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Ovarian System - Answer (click here)
14. Puberty and Menarche - Answer (click here)
15. Menopause - Answer (click here)
16. Abnormalities of Secretion by the Ovaries - Answer (click here)
17. Female Sexual Act - Answer (click here)
18. Female Fertility - Answer (click here)

Pregnancy and Lactation

1. Maturation and Fertilization of the Ovum - Answer (click here)
2. Early Nutrition of the Embryo - Answer (click here)
3. Function of the Placenta: Developmental and Physiologic Anatomy of the Placenta - Answer (click here)
4. Hormonal Factors in Pregnancy - Answer (click here)
5. Response of the Mother’s Body to Pregnancy - Answer (click here)
6. Changes in the Maternal Circulatory System During Pregnancy - Answer (click here)
7. Increased Uterine Excitability Near Term - Parturition - Answer (click here)
8. Onset of Labor-A Positive Feedback Mechanism for Its Initiation - Parturition - Answer (click here)
9. Abdominal Muscle Contractions During Labor - Answer (click here)
10. Mechanics of Parturition - Answer (click here)
11. Separation and Delivery of the Placenta - Answer (click here)
12. Labor Pains - Answer (click here)
13. Involution of the Uterus After Parturition - Answer (click here)
14. Parturition - Answer (click here)
15. Lactation - Answer (click here)
16. Development of the Breasts - Lactation - Answer (click here)
17. Initiation of Lactation-Function of Prolactin - Answer (click here)
18. Ejection (or “Let-Down”) Process in Milk Secretion-Function of Oxytocin - Answer (click here)
19. Milk Composition and the Metabolic Drain on the Mother Caused by Lactation - Answer (click here)

Fetal and Neonatal Physiology

1. Growth and Functional Development of the Fetus - Answer (click here)
2. Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life - Answer (click here)
3. Onset of Breathing - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life - Answer (click here)
4. Circulatory Readjustments at Birth - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life - Answer (click here)
5. Nutrition of the Neonate - Adjustments of the Infant to Extrauterine Life - Answer (click here)
6. Special Functional Problems in the Neonate - Answer (click here)
7. Special Problemsof Prematurity - Answer (click here)
8. Growth and Development of the Child - Answer (click here)

Sports Physiology

1. Sports Physiology - Answer (click here)
2. Muscles in Exercise: Strength, Power, and Endurance of Muscles - Answer (click here)
3. Muscle Metabolic Systems in Exercise - Answer (click here)
4. Phosphocreatine-Creatine System - Muscles in Exercise - Answer (click here)
5. Nutrients Used During Muscle Activity - Muscles in Exercise - Answer (click here)
6. Effect of Athletic Training on Muscles and Muscle Performance - Answer (click here)
7. Respiration in Exercise - Answer (click here)
8. Cardiovascular System in Exercise - Answer (click here)
9. Body Heat in Exercise - Answer (click here)
10. Body Fluids and Salt in Exercise - Answer (click here)
11. Drugs and Athletes - Answer (click here)
12. Body Fitness Prolongs Life - Answer (click here)