Psychology
- Lecture Notes, Study Materials and Important questions answers

Subject : Psychology

Prologue What Is Psychology

1. Prologue: What Is Psychology? - Answer (click here)
2. Psychology’s Diverse Methods and Perspectives - Answer (click here)
3. The Neural Basis of Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
4. The Evolutionary Basis for Emotional Remembering - Answer (click here)
5. Cognitive Influences on Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
6. Social Influences on Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
7. The Cultural Setting of Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
8. A Developmental Perspective on Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
9. Disorders of Emotional Memory - Answer (click here)
10. What Unites Psychology? - Answer (click here)

Research Methods

1. Psychology: Research Methods - Answer (click here)
2. Psychology: Making Observations - Answer (click here)
3. Making Observations: Defining the Question - Answer (click here)
4. Making Observations: Systematically Collecting Data - Answer (click here)
5. Making Observations: Defining the Sample - Answer (click here)
6. Making Observations: Assessing External Validity - Answer (click here)
7. Making Observations: Monitoring Demand Characteristics - Answer (click here)
8. Psychology: Working With Data - Answer (click here)
9. Working With Data: Descriptive Statistics - Answer (click here)
10. Working With Data: Inferential Statistics - Answer (click here)
11. Psychology: Observational Studies - Answer (click here)
12. Establishing Cause and Effect: the Power of Experiments - Answer (click here)
13. Experimental Groups versus Control Groups - Answer (click here)
14. Random Assignment - Answer (click here)
15. Within-Subject Comparisons - Answer (click here)
16. Internal Validity - Answer (click here)
17. Beyond the Single Experiment - Answer (click here)
18. Research Ethics - Answer (click here)
19. The Power of Science - Answer (click here)
20. Some Final Thoughts: Methodological Eclecticism - Answer (click here)

The Genetic and Evolutionary Roots of Behavior

1. The Genetic and Evolutionary Roots of Behavior - Answer (click here)
2. Genetics and DNA - Answer (click here)
3. Evolution by Natural Selection - Answer (click here)
4. The Principles of Natural Selection - Answer (click here)
5. Genes and Evolution - Answer (click here)
6. Evidence for Evolution by Natural Selection - Answer (click here)
7. The Unity of Life - Answer (click here)
8. The Genetics and Evolution of Behavior - Answer (click here)
9. The Biological Roots of Smiling - Answer (click here)
10. The Genetics of Intelligence - Answer (click here)
11. The Evolution of Mating Patterns - Answer (click here)

The Brain and the Nervous System

1. The Brain and the Nervous System - Answer (click here)
2. The Organism as a Machine - Answer (click here)
3. Building Blocks of the Nervous System - Answer (click here)
4. Communication among Neurons - Answer (click here)
5. Activity and Communication within the Neuron - Answer (click here)
6. Explaining the Action Potential - Answer (click here)
7. Propagation of the Action Potential - Answer (click here)
8. All-or-None Law - Communication among Neurons - Answer (click here)
9. The Synapse - Communication among Neurons - Answer (click here)
10. The Synaptic Mechanism - Answer (click here)
11. Neurotransmitters - Answer (click here)
12. Drugs and Neurotransmitters - Answer (click here)
13. Communication through the Bloodstream - Answer (click here)
14. Methods for Studying the Nervous System - Answer (click here)
15. Methods for Studying the Nervous System: Recording from Individual Neurons - Answer (click here)
16. Methods for Studying the Nervous System: Studying the Effects of Brain Damage - Answer (click here)
17. Methods for Studying the Nervous System: Recording from the Whole Brain - Answer (click here)
18. The Power of Combining Techniques - Answer (click here)
19. The Architecture of the Nervous System - Answer (click here)
20. The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems - Answer (click here)
21. The Anatomy of the Brain - Answer (click here)
22. Lateralization - Answer (click here)
23. The Cerebral Cortex - Answer (click here)
24. The Cerebral Cortex: Projection Areas - Answer (click here)
25. Cerebral Cortex: Association Areas - Answer (click here)
26. The Results of Cortical Damage - Answer (click here)
27. Plasticity - Answer (click here)
28. Plasticity: Changes in Neuronal Connections - Answer (click here)
29. Plasticity: Cortical Reorganization - Answer (click here)
30. Plasticity: New Neurons - Answer (click here)
31. Plasticity: Repairing Damage to the Nervous System - Answer (click here)

Sensation

1. Psychology: Sensation - Answer (click here)
2. The Origins of Knowledge - Answer (click here)
3. Psychophysics - Answer (click here)
4. Psychophysics: Sensory Thresholds - Answer (click here)
5. Psychophysics: Detection and Decision - Answer (click here)
6. A Survey of the Senses - Answer (click here)
7. A Survey of the Senses: Sensory Coding - Answer (click here)
8. A Survey of the Senses: Sensory Adaptation - Answer (click here)
9. A Survey of the Senses: The Vestibular Sense - Answer (click here)
10. A Survey of the Senses: The Skin Senses - Answer (click here)
11. A Survey of the Senses: Pain - Answer (click here)
12. A Survey of the Senses: Smell - Answer (click here)
13. A Survey of the Senses: Taste - Answer (click here)
14. Hearing - Answer (click here)
15. The Stimulus: Sound - Answer (click here)
16. From Sound Waves to Hearing - Answer (click here)
17. Vision - Answer (click here)
18. The Stimulus: Light - Answer (click here)
19. Gathering the Stimulus: The Eye - Answer (click here)
20. The Visual Receptors - Answer (click here)
21. Vision Contrast Effects - Answer (click here)
22. Vision Color - Answer (click here)
23. The Neural Basis of Color Vision - Answer (click here)
24. Vision Perceiving Shapes - Answer (click here)

Perception

1. Psychology: Perception - Answer (click here)
2. Form Perception: What Is It?: The Importance of Features - Answer (click here)
3. Form Perception: What Is It?: The Importance of Organization - Answer (click here)
4. Network Models of Perception - Answer (click here)
5. The Neuroscience of Vision - Answer (click here)
6. Perceptual Constancy - Answer (click here)
7. Distance Perception: Where Is It? - Answer (click here)
8. Motion Perception: What Is It Doing? - Answer (click here)
9. Perceptual Selection: Attention - Answer (click here)
10. Perception: Other Modalities - Answer (click here)

Consciousness

1. Consciousness - Answer (click here)
2. Introspection and the Functions of Consciousness - Answer (click here)
3. Consciousness: Translating Thoughts into Words - Answer (click here)
4. Consciousness: The Cognitive Unconscious - Answer (click here)
5. Consciousness: Brain Damage and Unconscious Functioning - Answer (click here)
6. Consciousness: Unconscious Attributions - Answer (click here)
7. Consciousness: Mistaken Introspections - Answer (click here)
8. The Function of Consciousness - Answer (click here)
9. Neural Basis for Consciousness - Answer (click here)
10. Neural Basis for Consciousness: The Mind-Body Problem - Answer (click here)
11. The Many Brain Areas Needed for Consciousness - Answer (click here)
12. Neural Correlates of Consciousness - Answer (click here)
13. The Global Workspace Hypothesis - Answer (click here)
14. Varieties of Consciousness - Answer (click here)
15. Consciousness: Sleep - Answer (click here)
16. Consciousness: Sleep and Wake Cycles - Answer (click here)
17. Consciousness: The Need For Sleep - Answer (click here)
18. Consciousness: The Function of Sleep - Answer (click here)
19. Consciousness: Dreams - Answer (click here)
20. Why Do We Dream ? - Answer (click here)
21. Sleep, Dreams, and Consciousness - Answer (click here)
22. Consciousness: Hypnosis - Answer (click here)
23. Consciousness: Religious States(Meditation) - Answer (click here)
24. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness - Answer (click here)
25. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness: Depressants - Answer (click here)
26. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness: Stimulants - Answer (click here)
27. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness: Marijuana - Answer (click here)
28. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness: Hallucinogens - Answer (click here)
29. Drug-Induced Changes in Consciousness: Addiction - Answer (click here)

Learning

1. Psychology: Learning - Answer (click here)
2. The Perspective of Learning Theory - Answer (click here)
3. Habituation - Answer (click here)
4. Classical Conditioning - Answer (click here)
5. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov and the Conditioned Response - Answer (click here)
6. The Major Phenomena of Classical Conditioning - Answer (click here)
7. Classical Conditioning: Acquisition of Conditioned Responses - Answer (click here)
8. Classical Conditioning: Extinction - Answer (click here)
9. Classical Conditioning: Generalization - Answer (click here)
10. Classical Conditioning: Discrimination - Answer (click here)
11. Classical Conditioning: The CS as a “Signal” - Answer (click here)
12. Classical Conditioning: Contingency - Answer (click here)
13. Classical Conditioning: The Absence of Contingency - Answer (click here)
14. Classical Conditioning: Role of Surprise - Answer (click here)
15. Classical Conditioning: The Relationship between the CR and the UR - Answer (click here)
16. Instrumental Conditioning - Answer (click here)
17. Instrumental Conditioning: Thorndike and the Law of Effect - Answer (click here)
18. Instrumental Conditioning: Skinner and Operant Behavior - Answer (click here)
19. Instrumental Conditioning: The Major Phenomena of Instrumental Conditioning - Answer (click here)
20. Instrumental Conditioning: Changing Behaviors or Acquiring Knowledge? - Answer (click here)
21. Observational Learning - Answer (click here)
22. Varieties of Learning - Answer (click here)
23. Biological Influences on Learning: Belongingness - Answer (click here)
24. Different Types of Learning - Answer (click here)
25. Similarities in How Different Species Learn - Answer (click here)
26. The Neural Basis for Learning - Answer (click here)

Memory

1. Psychology: Memory - Answer (click here)
2. Acquisition, Storage, Retrieval - Answer (click here)
3. Acquisition - Answer (click here)
4. Acquisition: Working Memory, Long-Term Memory - Answer (click here)
5. Acquisition: Establishing Long-Term Memories - Answer (click here)
6. Psychology: Storage - Answer (click here)
7. Psychology: Retrieval - Answer (click here)
8. Psychology: Memory Gaps, Memory Errors - Answer (click here)
9. Memory Gaps, Memory Errors: Forgetting - Answer (click here)
10. Psychology: Memory Intrusions - Answer (click here)
11. Psychology: Memory: An Overall Assessment - Answer (click here)
12. Psychology: Varieties of Memory - Answer (click here)
13. Psychology: Episodic and Semantic Memory - Answer (click here)
14. Psychology: Possible Subdivisions of Episodic Memory - Answer (click here)
15. Psychology: Explicit and Implicit Memory - Answer (click here)

Thinking

1. Psychology: Thinking - Answer (click here)
2. Mental Representations - Answer (click here)
3. Judgment: Drawing Conclusions from Experience - Answer (click here)
4. Judgment: The Availability Heuristic - Answer (click here)
5. Judgment: The Representativeness Heuristic - Answer (click here)
6. Judgment: Thinking Dual-Process Theories - Answer (click here)
7. Reasoning: Drawing Implications from Our Beliefs - Answer (click here)
8. Reasoning: Confirmation Bias - Answer (click here)
9. Reasoning: Faulty Logic - Answer (click here)
10. Reasoning: Triggers for Good Reasoning - Answer (click here)
11. Reasoning: Judgment and Reasoning: An Overview - Answer (click here)
12. Decision Making: Choosing Among Options - Answer (click here)
13. Decision Making: Framing Effects - Answer (click here)
14. Decision Making: Affective Forecasting - Answer (click here)
15. Decision Making: Too Many Options - Answer (click here)
16. Decision Making: Reason-Based Choice - Answer (click here)
17. Decision Making: An Overview - Answer (click here)
18. Problem Solving: Finding a Path Toward a Goal - Answer (click here)
19. Problem Solving: The Role of the Goal State - Answer (click here)
20. Problem Solving: Hierarchical Organization - Answer (click here)
21. Problem Solving: Automaticity - Answer (click here)
22. Problem Solving: Obstacles to Problem Solving - Answer (click here)
23. Problem Solving: Overcoming Obstacles to Solutions - Answer (click here)
24. Problem Solving: Restructuring - Answer (click here)
25. Problem Solving: Creative Thinking - Answer (click here)
26. Problem Solving: Experts - Answer (click here)

Language

1. Psychology: Language - Answer (click here)
2. Building Blocks of Language - Answer (click here)
3. Building Blocks of Language: The Sound Units - Answer (click here)
4. Building Blocks of Language: Morphemes and Words - Answer (click here)
5. Building Blocks of Language: Phrases and Sentences - Answer (click here)
6. How Language Conveys Meaning - Answer (click here)
7. Psychology Language: Meanings of Words - Answer (click here)
8. Psychology Language: The Meanings of Sentences - Answer (click here)
9. Psychology Language: How We Understand - Answer (click here)
10. How We Learn a Language - Answer (click here)
11. The Social Origins of Language Learning - Answer (click here)
12. Discovering the Building Blocks of Language - Answer (click here)
13. The Growth of Word Meaning - Answer (click here)
14. The Progression to Adult Language - Answer (click here)
15. Language Learning in Changed Environments - Answer (click here)
16. Wild Children - Answer (click here)
17. Isolated Children - Answer (click here)
18. Language without Sound - Answer (click here)
19. Language without a Model - Answer (click here)
20. Children Deprived of Access to Some of the Meanings - Answer (click here)
21. Children Exposed to More Than One Language: The Case of Bilingualism - Answer (click here)
22. Language Learning with Changed Endowments - Answer (click here)
23. The Sensitive Period Hypothesis - Answer (click here)
24. Language in Nonhumans - Answer (click here)
25. Language and Thought - Answer (click here)
26. How Language Connects to Thought - Answer (click here)
27. Do People Who Talk Differently Come to Understand the World Differently? - Answer (click here)
28. How Can We Study Language and Thought? - Answer (click here)

Intelligence

1. Intelligence - Answer (click here)
2. Intelligence Testing - Answer (click here)
3. What Is Intelligence? The Psychometric Approach - Answer (click here)
4. The Logic of Psychometrics - Answer (click here)
5. Factor Analysis and the Idea of General Intelligence - Answer (click here)
6. A Hierarchical Model of Intelligence - Answer (click here)
7. Intelligence: Fluid and Crystallized G - Answer (click here)
8. The Building Blocks of Intelligence - Answer (click here)
9. Intelligence Beyond the IQ Test - Answer (click here)
10. The Roots of Intelligence - Answer (click here)
11. The Roots of Intelligence: The Politics of IQ Testing - Answer (click here)
12. The Roots of Intelligence: The Problems with “Nature vs. Nurture” - Answer (click here)
13. The Roots of Intelligence: Genetics and Individual IQ - Answer (click here)
14. The Roots of Intelligence: Environment and Individual IQ - Answer (click here)
15. The Roots of Intelligence: Heritability Ratios - Answer (click here)
16. The Roots of Intelligence: Group Differences in IQ - Answer (click here)
17. Group Differences in IQ: Between - Group and Within – Group Differences - Answer (click here)
18. Group Differences in IQ: Comparisons Between Men And Women - Answer (click here)
19. Group Differences in IQ: Stereo Type Threat - Answer (click here)

Motivation and Emotion

1. Motivation and Emotion - Answer (click here)
2. Motivational States - Answer (click here)
3. Thermoregulation - Answer (click here)
4. Hunger, Eating, and Obesity - Answer (click here)
5. Physiological Aspects of Hunger and Eating - Answer (click here)
6. Cultural and Cognitive Aspects of Hunger and Eating - Answer (click here)
7. Obesity - Answer (click here)
8. Threat and Aggression - Answer (click here)
9. Physiological Aspects of Threat and Aggression - Answer (click here)
10. Cultural and Cognitive Aspects of Threat and Aggression - Answer (click here)
11. Sexual Behavior - Answer (click here)
12. Physiological Aspects of Sexuality - Answer (click here)
13. Cultural and Cognitive Aspects of Sexuality - Answer (click here)
14. Sexual Orientation - Answer (click here)
15. Motives Beyond Drives - Answer (click here)
16. The Diversity of Motives - Answer (click here)
17. Emotion and Emotion Regulation - Answer (click here)
18. The Many Facets of Emotion - Answer (click here)
19. The Functions of Emotion - Answer (click here)
20. Emotion Regulation - Answer (click here)

Social Psychology

1. Social Psychology - Answer (click here)
2. Social Cognition - Answer (click here)
3. Social Cognition: Attribution - Answer (click here)
4. Social Cognition: Person Perception - Answer (click here)
5. Social Cognition: Attitudes - Answer (click here)
6. Social Influence - Answer (click here)
7. Social Influence: Conformity - Answer (click here)
8. Social Influence: Obedience - Answer (click here)
9. Social Influence: Compliance - Answer (click here)
10. Social Influence: Group Dynamics - Answer (click here)
11. Social Relations - Answer (click here)
12. Social Relations: Helping and Altruism - Answer (click here)
13. Social Relations: Attraction - Answer (click here)
14. Social Relations: Love - Answer (click here)

Development

1. Psychology: Development - Answer (click here)
2. Prenatal Development - Answer (click here)
3. Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
4. Physical and Sensorimotor Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
5. Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
6. Piaget ’S Stage Theory - Answer (click here)
7. Beyond Piaget - Answer (click here)
8. Early Conceptions of the Physical World - Answer (click here)
9. Number and Mathematical Reasoning - Answer (click here)
10. Social Cognition and Theory of Mind - Answer (click here)
11. Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
12. The Earliest Interactions - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
13. Attachment - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
14. Differences in Attachment - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
15. The Role of Temperament - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
16. The Role of Culture - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
17. The Role of Parenting Styles - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
18. The Impact of Child Care - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
19. The Effects of Domestic Conflict and Divorce - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
20. What Happens When there is No Attachment ? - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
21. Peer Relationships - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
22. Development of Moral Thinking - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
23. Conscience and Moral Feeling - Socioemotional Development in Infancy and Childhood - Answer (click here)
24. Adolescence - Answer (click here)
25. Physical Development in Adolescence - Answer (click here)
26. Cognitive Development in Adolescence - Answer (click here)
27. Socioemotional Development in Adolescence - Answer (click here)
28. Adulthood and Older Age - Answer (click here)
29. Physical and Sensorimotor Changes in Adulthood - Answer (click here)
30. Cognitive Changes in Adulthood - Answer (click here)
31. Socioemotional Development in Adulthood - Answer (click here)

Personality

1. Personality - Answer (click here)
2. The Trait Approach: Defining Our Differences - Answer (click here)
3. The Trait Approach: The Big Five - Answer (click here)
4. The Trait Approach: The Consistency Controversy - Answer (click here)
5. The Trait Approach: Traits and Biology - Answer (click here)
6. The Trait Approach: Traits and the Environment - Answer (click here)
7. The Trait Approach: Contributions of the Trait Approach - Answer (click here)
8. Psychodynamic Approach: Probing the Depths - Answer (click here)
9. Psychodynamic Approach: Psychoanalysis: Theory and Practice - Answer (click here)
10. Psychodynamic Approach: Psychological Defenses and Development - Answer (click here)
11. Psychodynamic Approach: The Empirical Basis of Freud’s Claims - Answer (click here)
12. Psychodynamic Approach: Psychodynamic Formulations after Freud - Answer (click here)
13. Psychodynamic Approach: Contributions of the Psychodynamic Approach - Answer (click here)
14. The Humanistic Approach: Appreciating Our Potential - Answer (click here)
15. The Humanistic Approach: Phenomenology and Self-actualization - Answer (click here)
16. The Humanistic Approach: The Self - Answer (click here)
17. The Humanistic Approach: Positive Psychology - Answer (click here)
18. Contributions of the Humanistic Approach - Answer (click here)
19. The Social-Cognitive Approach: The Power of Beliefs - Answer (click here)
20. Origins of the Social-Cognitive Approach - Answer (click here)
21. Key Social-Cognitive Concepts - Answer (click here)
22. Contributions of the Social-Cognitive Approach - Answer (click here)

Psychopathology

1. Psychopathology - Answer (click here)
2. Conceptions of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
3. Defining Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
4. Assessing Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
5. Psychopathology: Making Diagnoses Using the DSM - Answer (click here)
6. Psychopathology: The Costs and Benefits of Labeling - Answer (click here)
7. Anxiety Disorders - Answer (click here)
8. Anxiety Disorders: Phobias - Answer (click here)
9. Anxiety Disorders: Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia - Answer (click here)
10. Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Answer (click here)
11. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Answer (click here)
12. Stress Disorders - Answer (click here)
13. Roots of the Anxiety Disorders - Answer (click here)
14. Mood Disorders - Answer (click here)
15. Mood Disorders: Depression - Answer (click here)
16. Mood Disorders: Bipolar Disorder - Answer (click here)
17. The Roots of Mood Disorders - Answer (click here)
18. Schizophrenia - Answer (click here)
19. Schizophrenia: Signs and Symptoms - Answer (click here)
20. The Roots of Schizophrenia - Answer (click here)
21. Developmental Disorders - Answer (click here)
22. Eating Disorders - Answer (click here)
23. Dissociative Disorders - Answer (click here)
24. Personality Disorders - Answer (click here)

Treatment of Mental Disorders

1. Treatment of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
2. Treatments Past and Present - Answer (click here)
3. Early Treatments for Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
4. Current Treatments for Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
5. Psychological Treatments - Answer (click here)
6. Psychological Treatments: Psychodynamic Approaches - Answer (click here)
7. Psychological Treatments: Humanistic Approaches - Answer (click here)
8. Psychological Treatments: Behavioral Approaches - Answer (click here)
9. Psychological Treatments: Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches - Answer (click here)
10. Psychological Treatments: Integrated Treatments and Eclecticism - Answer (click here)
11. Psychological Treatments: Beyond One-on-One Therapy - Answer (click here)
12. Biomedical Treatment of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
13. Pharmacological Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
14. Nonpharmacological Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
15. Common Factors and Combined Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
16. The Importance of Empirically Supported Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
17. Logic of Outcome Research - Evaluating Treatment of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
18. Evaluating Psychological vs. Biomedical Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
19. Efficacy vs. Utility - Treatments of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
20. Meta-Analyses of Therapy Outcome - Treatment of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)
21. Does One Size Fit All? - Treatment of Mental Disorders - Answer (click here)